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MEXICO. 



A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH, 



WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 



EOOlSrOMIO OOl^DITIOl^S AJ^T> PROSPECTS 
OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT. 



COMPILED BY 

THE BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1900. 



/ 

so 



MEXICO. 



A GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH, 



WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 



EOOE'OMIO OOE'DITIOIsrS Al^D PEOSPEOTS 
OF FUTUEE DEYELOPMEiN^T. 



COMPILED BY 

THE BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 



WASHINGTON": 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1900. 






NOTE. 

For the convenience of those not faniiUar with the Bpanif^h language, tlie following 
general rules are appended concerning the pronunciation and the value of the accent 

of Spanish words. 

All vowels are prononnced an<l have invarial.ly the same sounds under all condi- 
tions. A is pronounced ah; e, rh; i, ee; o, oh; u, oo (as in good) ; e. g., Ta-inau-li-pas 
is pronoimced Tah-niah-oo-leeh-pahs. . . 

The letter h is never pronounced, except when it follows the letter r, when it is 
pronounced as in English; e. g., Co-a-hui-la and Chi-hua-hua are pronounced Coh-ah- 
oo-eeh-lah and Chee-ooh-ah-ooh-ah. 

J is always pronounced like the English h; thus Jalisco is Ilah-lees-c... 

Chie, gui, and que, qui are pronounced as in English. 

Z is pronounced verv nearly as th in thought; and X, in names of towns, cities, etc., 
in Mexico, is pronounced like /i in English; Oaxaca being Oahaca; Mexico, Mchico. 

Words ending in anv consonant excepting n and s have the stress on the last 
syllable- e cr , Tepic, pronounced Tepfc. Words ending in a vowel have the accent or 
stress on the penultimate, as Colima, pronounced Colbna. Exceptions liear the mark 
( ' ) on the letter where the accent falls. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Chapter I. — Geographical sketch .. _. 5 

II. — Historical sketch . . _ . _ . 16 

III. — Ethnology and archaeology of Mexico, by Prof. O. T. Mason, etc. 23 

IV. — Grovernment and constitutional organization — Army and Navy _ 46 

v.— Political division— The \ alley of Mexico — Federal District 55 

VI.— The States ___ 66 

VII. — Agriculture _ _ 143 

VIII.— Stock raising 179 

IX. — Mines and mining . . 182 

X. — Industries and Manufactures . . . 204 

XI. — Commerce ._. 217 

XII. — Financial organization — Public debt 247 

XIII.— Mints, currency, banks and banking . . 258 

XIV. — Means of communication — Railroads and railroad law— Tele- 
graph and telephone lines— Steamship lines— Postal service. 273 

XV. — Public land, colonization, and immigration laws . 301 

XVI.— Education— Religion— Protestant missions 313 

XVII. — Patent and Trade-mark laws _ _ 322 

XVIII. — Cost of living — Wages to labor — Building, etc . . . 331 

XIX. — Miscellaneous data 335 

XX.— Bibliography and Cartography 350 

3 



MEXICO 






CHAPTER I. 

GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 

The country called Mexico, or New Spain, by the historians^of the 
last century w^ situated between 9"^ and 40° north latitude, and 80° 
and 60° west longitude. Its length was 2,100 miles, and its breadth 
1,600. 

The United Mexican States of to-day, according to the latest official 
data, lie between 11° 30' 42" and 32° 42' latitude north, and 86° 46' 8" 
and 117° 7' 31" longitude west from Greenwich, having a superficial 
area of about 767,326 square miles. The northern and eastern bound- 
ary of the Republic is the United States of America; the eastern, 
British Honduras, the Caribbean Sea,, and the Gulf of Mexico; its 
southern, the Pacific Ocean, Guatemala, and British Honduras; and 
the western, the Pacific Ocean. Its greatest length is about 1,900 and 
its greatest width 750 miles. The eastern coast line is 1,727 miles 
long, and the western 4,574 miles. The widest part is along its 
boundary with tha United States, and the narrowest the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec, where the distance from ocean to ocean is only about 100 
miles. 

The boundar}^ with the United States, as fixed by the treaties of 
February 2, 1848, and December 30, 1853, begins at the mouth of the 
Rio Grande on the Gulf of Mexico and follows the river for 1,136 
miles beyond El Paso, Tex., to the point where it meets parallel 
31° 47' latitude north, thence along said parallel for a distance of 100 
miles; thence south to parallel 31° 20' north latitude, following this 
parallel in a westerly direction as far as the one hundred and eleventh 
meridian of longitude west- from Greenwich. Thence it runs in a 
straight line to a point on the Colorado River 20 miles below the 
junction of the Gila, thence up the middle of said Colorado River to 
the intersection with the old line between Upper and Lower Califor- 
nia, and thence to a point on the Pacific Ocean distant 1 marine league 
due south of the southernmost point of the Bay of San Diego, the 
total distance from El Paso, Tex., to the Pacific being 674 miles. 

5 



6 MEXICO. 

riic whole extent of the lioiiiidarv between the two eoimti'ies is 1.S38 
miles. As this houiidaiy line runs from the southeast to tlie iioi-th- 
west, Mexico has on the I'aeilie side (5 'M' "JO" of latitude luoi'e than 
on the Gulf .side. 

Owiujj;' to the diseovei'v of mines in the immediate vicinity of tlie 
lioundary line some years later, ditUeulties arose regai'ding' the exact 
location of the line and the destruction of some of the original maiks. 
A convention was then coni-luded l)et\veen the two (70\'ernments at the 
city of Washinetou on the 2I»th of -luiy, 1S.S2, providing for the 
a})pointment of an 1 nteinational Houndury Commission to ascerttiin 
the condition of the moiumients marking the boundary line, a })relim- 
inary recomioi.^sance of the same line to be made by both (io\-ernments 
in aiHt)rdance with the stipulations of the convention, 'riie i-econnois- 
sance was made in L883 by officers of I )oth (xovernments, independently, 
and their respective reports w^ere sul)mitted showing the necessity of 
a moi-e definite demarkation of the Iwundary line. The other stipula- 
tions of this convention were not carried into effect in due time, and 
another convention to revive and continue the same was concluded at 
Washington between the two Governments on the 18th of Fe])ruary, 
1889. In compliance with this new convention the officers appointed 
by the two Governments began the work assigned to tiiem, and pi'e- 
sented their joint report dated Washington, August 14, 1890.' 

The l)oundary with Guatemala is fixed by the treaties of September 
27, 1882, and April 1, 1895. It runs from a point on the Pacific coast, 
3 leagues distant from the upper mouth of the river Zuchiate, to 
the Caribbean Sea, following the course indicated b}'^ the treaties. 
The l)oundarv with Belize is defined by a treatv signed at the City of 
Mexico on July 8, 1893, and ratified by the Mexican Senate on April 
19, 1897. This line runs from the mouth of Boca Bacalar Chica — a strait 
separating Yucatan from Ambergris Key — to the lioundary l)etween 
Mexico and Guatemala, following the demarkation set forth in the 
treatv. 

Bv the treaties known as the Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty, February 
2, 1818, and the Gadsden treaty, December 30, 1853, Mexico ceded to 
the United States 930,590 square miles, or over one-half of her former 
territory. The area of each of the Mexican cessions to the ITnited 
States is estimated as follows: 

Square miles. 

Annexation of Texas •5t)2, 487 

By Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty 522, 568 

By Gadisden treaty 45, 535 

Total 930,590 

The country possesses a curious physical formation. Rising I'apidly 
by a succession of terraces from the low^ sandy coasts on the east and 

^ Report of the International Boundary Commission, United States and Mexico, 
1891-1896. 



MEXICO. i 

west, it culminates in a central plateau running in a northwesterly 
and southeasterly direction, and having an elevation varying from 
4,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea. High above this plateau tower the 
snow-capped crests of several volcanoes, most of which are extinct. 
The highest peaks are the volcanoes of Popocatepetl, 17,640 feet; the 
Orizaba or Citlaltepetl, 17,362 feet; the Ixtacihuatl, 16,076; Toluca, 
15,019; Colima, 14,363; and Ajusco, 13,628 feet, besides several others 
varying from 4,000 to 13,000 feet in height. 

Two Cordilleras, or high mountain ranges, traverse Mexico, running 
almost parallel to the coast, one along the Gulf of Mexico and the 
other along the Pacific coast. The former runs from 10 to 100 miles 
from the coast, leaving an imperceptibly inclined plane between the sea 
and the foot of the mountains, while the cordillera on the Pacific side 
runs very near the coast, leaving a very narrow strip of land between 
the mountains and the sea. This range has several branches running 
in different directions, the most continuous being the Sierra Madre of 
the Pacific. Parallel to this last-named range is the Sierra de la 
Giganta in Lower California, which slopes abruptly toward the east 
like the Atlantic escarpments. Corresponding with the Sieri-a Madre 
on the west are the broken eastern scarps of the central plateau. 

The cordillera of Anahuac, which surrounds the valleys of Teno- 
chtitlan and Puebla, is the most important orographically and histor- 
ically of the central cross ridges and is supposed to culminate in 
Popocatepetl and Ixtacihuatl. It seems, however, that these volcanoes 
belong to a more recent upheaval as they are nearly at right angles to 
the main axis of the central plateau, south of the line formed by the 
Orizaba or Citlaltepetl, on the coast south of Veracruz, to which cor- 
respond, on the west, the Jorullo, in Michoacan, Colima, near the 
coast in Jalisco and the Revillagigedo group on the Pacific. Nearly 
parallel to these are the sierras of Guerrero and southeast of the Isthmus 
of Tehuantepec those of Oaxaca and Chiapas toward the frontier of 
Guatemala. In the course of time these mountains have become dis- 
integrated by rain and other natural causes, and the filling up of the 
spaces between them has formed a series of valleys rich in agricultural 
resources. These valleys, known as the central plateau, run for about 
150 miles east of the City of Mexico, in a northwesterly direction. 
The plateau is so level that when there were no wagon roads in Mexico 
one could travel in a carriage from the City of Mexico to Santa Fe. 
In contrast with the plains, and the at times barren districts of the 
plateau, the territory is occasionally broken by depressions called 
"barrancas," having in some instances a depth of 1,000 feet and being- 
several miles in length. These are covered with a luxurious growth 
of trees and shrubs and watered by small streams running through the 
middle of the valley. Among the most remarkable are the Barranca 
de Bertran, on the western slope from Guadalajara to Colima, and the 
Mochitiltl from Guadalajara to Tepic. 



8 MEXICO. 

The eastern coast of Mexico, bathed by the Caribbean Sea and the 
Gulf of Mexico, is flat, low, and sandy, except near the mouth of the 
Tabasco River, where, at some distance from the coast, appear the 
heights of San Gabriel, extending northeast and southwest for several 
miles. The coast on the Pacific side, though generally low, is here 
and there broken by spurs extending from the Cordilleras to the ocean. 

The principal gulfs are the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of California, 
and the Gulf of Tehuantepec, the first named ranking among the 
largest in the world. The only bays worthy of notice are those of 
Guaymas, Santa Barbara, Topolobampo, and Navachiste, in the Gulf 
of California ; Concepcion, La Paz, and Muleje on the west coast of 
the same gulf ; San Quintin, Magdalena, and Amejas, on the Pacific 
coast, in Lower California, and San Bias and Valle de Banderas on the 
coast of Tepic. 

The largest lake on Mexican territory is the Chapala Lake, meas- 
uring over 80 miles in length by 30 in breadth. The Valley of Mexico 
has seven lakes, one fresh and six salt water, the three largest being 
Chalco, Xochimilco, and Texcoco. The other lakes in Mexico are 
Catemaco, in the State of Veracruz, Cariel and Carpintero in the State 
of Tamaulipas; Encantado, in Tabasco, Bacalor, in Yucatan; Alcuzague, 
in Colima; Cuitzeo, Tacascuaro, and Patzcuaro, in Michoacan; Yuriria, 
in Guanajuato, and Meztitlan in Hidalgo. 

Mexico has a great many islands near the coasts, none of them very 
large and most of them uninhabited, although some are of great fer- 
tility and are capable of supporting a large population. Among the 
most important are, El Carmen, the largest in the Gulf of Mexico; 
San Juan de Ulua and Sacrificios, opposite the port of Veracruz; 
Mujeres, in the Caribbean Sea; Guadalupe, about 76 miles from the 
west coast of Lower California ; Tres Marias, a group off the same 
coast; the Revillagigedo group, near the coast of Colimas and Alcatraz 
Island, not far from the coast of the State of Michoacan. 

The principal rivers of Mexico are the Rio Grande, 1,500 miles long, 
forming, from El Paso, Tex., to the sea, the boundary line between - 
the United States and Mexico; the Lerma or Santiago, 540 miles long; 
the Mescala or Balsas, 426 miles in length; the Yaqui, 390 miles; the 
Grijalva, 350 miles; the Fuerte, 340 miles; the Usumancita, 330 miles, 
and several others. The topographical conditions of the country are 
such as to cause the streams, in their progress toward the sea, to be 
continually precipitated in the form of cascades, etc., thus rendering 
navigation exceedingly difficult on account of their var3dng depths, 
but greatly facilitating their availability for motive power. The Rio 
Grande rises in Colorado (United States of North America), passes 
through New Mexico, and by the time it reaches Mexican territory it 
is almost dry, as the inhabitants of both States have utilized the 
greater portion of its waters for irrigation purposes. After passing 



MEXICO. 9 

Presidio del Norte (Ojinaga), the river Conchos and other tributaries 
supply the Grande with water, thus enlarging its stream, though never 
to the extent attained before its passage through Colorado and New 
Mexico. The Mescala or Balsas River rises in the central plateau, 
near the Valley of Mexico, passes through the State of Puebla to the 
southwest, and empties into the Pacific at Zacatula. This river is nav- 
igable for a short distance along its lower reaches; above the bar it is 
accessible to small craft. The Panuco River rises north of the Valle}^ 
of Mexico, and under the names of Tula and Montezuma it describes a 
vast semicircular bend toward the west across the Hidalgo uplands 
and receives the streams of the Huasteca of Veracruz and Tamaulipas, 
beyond which it is joined b}^ the various streams flowing from Quere- 
taro, and finally empties into the Gulf of Mexico at the port of Tam- 
pico, which is at present the best harbor on the Gulf coast. The River 
Lerma, or Santiago, is also a considerable stream. It rises in the 
mountains southwest of Toluca, passes through the Lake of Chapala, 
which it leaves under the name of Guadalajara, changing again its 
name to Tololotlan and Santiago before it empties near San Bias, hav- 
ing received the waters of many tributaries. The Grijalva and Usu- 
macinta rivers rise in the State of Chiapas, and, after being joined by 
many streams coming from Guatemala, empty into the Gulf of Mexico 
at the city of Frontera, in the State of Tabasco. The Papaloapam 
rises in the State of Oaxaca, passes through the State of Veracruz, and 
empties into the Gulf of Mexico at the town of Alvarado, a few miles 
south of Veracruz. There are also several other rivers more or less 
important. In all, there are in Mexico 95 streams worthy of mention, 
their total extent being 32,400 kilometers, 10,000 of which are nav- 
igable for ships of great draft, 1,800 for canoes and small steamers 
not exceeding three feet in draft, and the remaining 10,600 kilometers 
are useless for navigation, but suitable for irrigating purposes and in 
many cases for motive power. 

Senor Matias Romero ^ makes the following report on the geological 
conditions in Mexico: 

"The geology of Mexico has been but imperfectly studied. In the 
higher ranges the prevailing formations are granite, which seem also 
to form the foundations of the plateaus, above which rise the traps, 
basalts, mineral-bearing porphyries, and more recent lavas. Hence 
Lyell's" theory that Mexico consisted originally of granite ranges with 
intervening valleys subseq^uently filled up to the level of the 
plateaus by subterranean eruptions. Igneous rocks of every geologic 
epoch certainly form to a large extent the superstructure of the central 
plateau. But the Mexican lable-land seems to consist mainly of meta- 
morphic formations which have been partly upheaved, partly inter- 

' Coffee and India-rubber Culture in Mexico; New York, 1898, p. 12. 



10 MEXICO. 

penetrated and overlaid by ig-neous masses of all epochs and which are 
chiefly represented l)y shales, g-reywacke, greenstones, silicious schists, 
and especially unfossiliferous limestones. All these formations are 
alike remarkable for the abundance and variety of their metalliferous 
ores, such as silver, silver glance, copper, and gold. Gneiss and 
micaceous schists prevail in Oaxaca and on all the southern slopes 
facing both oceans. But the highest ranges are formed mainly of 
plutonic and volcanic rocks, such as granites, syenites, diorites, 
mineral-bearing trachytes, basalts, porphyries, obsidian, pearlstone, 
sulphur, pumice, lavas, tufa, and other recent volcanic discharges. 
Obsidian (itzli) was the chief material formerly used by the natives in 
the manufacture of their cutting implements, as shown by the quarries 
of the Cerro de las Navajas (Knife Cliff), near Real del Monte and 
Pachuca, in the State of Hidalgo. Vast deposits of pumice and the 
purest sulphur are found at Huichapam and in many of the craters. 
But immeasurably the most valuable rocks are the argentiferous 
porphyries and schists of the central plateau and of Sinaloa, unless 
they are destined to be rivaled by the auriferous deposits of Sonora. 
Horizontal and stratified rocks, of extremely limited extent in the 
south, are largely developed in the northern States and chalk becomes 
very prevalent toward the Rio Grande and Rio Gila valleys. To this 
chalk and to the sandstone are probably due the sandy plains which 
cover vast tracks in North Mexico, stretching thence far into New 
Mexico and Texas. Hence, the Bolson de Mapimi, a vast rocky wilder- 
ness inhabited until recently by wild tribes, occupies a space of per- 
haps 50,000 square miles in Coahuila and parts of the surrounding 
States. 

"None of the horizontal layers seem to be very rich in ores, which are 
mainly found in the metamorphic. Paleozoic, and hypogene rocks of 
Durango, Chihuahua, and the south. Apart from Sinaloa and Sonora, 
which are now known to contain vast stores of the precious metals, nearly 
all the historical mines lie on the south central plateau at elevations of 
from 5,500 to 9,500 feet. A line drawn from the capital to Guana- 
juato, and thence northward to the mining town of Guadalupe y 
Calvo of Chihuahua, and southward to Oaxaca, thus cutting the main 
axis of upheaval at an angle of 45°, will intersect probably the richest 
known argentiferous region in the whole world. 

"Of other minerals the most important are copper, found in a pure 
state near the city of Guanajuato, and associated with gold in Chi- 
huahua, Sonora, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, and elsewhere; iron in 
immense masses in Michoacan and Jalisco and in Durango, where the 
Cerro del Mercado is a solid mountain of magnetic iron ore; lead asso- 
ciated with silver, chiefly in Oaxaca; tin in Michoacan and Jalisco; 
sulphur in many craters; platinum, recently found in Hidalgo; cinna- 
bar, also recently found in Morelos and Guerrero; ' steppe salt' in the 



MEXICO. 11 

sandy districts of the north; 'bitter salt' at Tepayac and man}^ other 
places; coal at various points; bismuth in many parts; marble, ala- 
baster, g-ypsum, and rock salt in great abundance throughout the 
plateaus and sierra." 

The geographical position of Mexico gives it a great diversity of 
climate. The heat of the torrid zone is experienced on the seacoast 
and the low, marshy tracts bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and in 
the valleys shut in by mountains 3,000 feet above sea level. The 
night breezes, however, bring compensation for the heat of the daj^, 
and the rains, which begin usually in June and last until November, 
are so abundant and fall so regularly that they refresh the atmosphere 
and are the main reliance of the agriculturist. So decided is the effect 
of the rains on the atmosphere that the seasons are divided into two 
only, viz, the rainy and the dry season. Trees are never entirely 
denuded of their foliage, but as each leaf falls through age it is imme- 
diately replaced by another, thus the bare autumnal limbs incident to 
northern climes are unknown. 

The differences in climate, dependent upon the different degrees of 
altitude, are so great in Mexico that the vegetable products of the 
country embrace all that can be found between the Equator and the 
Polar Circle. 

The mean temperature in the hot regions varies from 77° to 82° F. , 
and often rises to 100°, and in some coast localities to 105°. 

The temperate zone lies between 3,000 and 6,000 feet above sea 
level. Here the mean temperature is from 62° to 70° F., the varia- 
tion during the season being not more than 4° or 5°. This may be 
called the region of eternal spring. Semitropical productions have 
their homes here, mingled with the products of both the tropical and 
cold regions. In this privileged region both extremes of heat and 
cold are unknown and in it are found several cities, among others 
Jalapa and Huatusco, in the State of Veracruz, Chilpancingo in 
Guerrero, and Ameca in Jalisco. There are farms here where wheat 
and sugar cane grow on the same parcel of ground. 

Between 7,000 feet above the level of the sea and greater heights 
lies the cold region, having a main temperature of from 59° to 60° F. 
Here the rainfall is five times less than in the temperate zone. The 
changes of temperature are but small from one end of the year to the 
other, although the diurnal changes between sunrise and sunset are 
often considerable. 

^ The climatic conditions of Mexico are undergoing great changes on 
account of the destruction of the forests. Rains were formerly very 
abundant and the atmosphere very moist, the country being covered 
with thick forests, but with the difficulty experienced in transporting 
the coal of the country, the population has had to depend entirely for 
their supply of fuel upon charcoal, thus denuding the mountains and 



12 MEXICO. 

changing very materially the climatic conditions of some regions. 
The case is different, however, in the lowlands, which are sparsely 
populated and where the country is still so thickly wooded that pas- 
sage through them is impossible unless a path is made by felling large 
trees and clearing away the underbrush and weeds. In these regions 
mahogany, cedar, rosewood, etc., abound. 

The most thickly populated region lies in the central plateau, high 
above sea level, and so well protected from the winds and storms by 
mountains that the climate is even, temperate, and delightful. The 
late Mr. Romero, from whose work, "Mexico and the United States,"^ 
much valuable data have been procured in the preparation of this 
work makes the following remark (p. 37): "The impression pre- 
vails in the United States that Mexico, lying to the south and run- 
ning toward the Equator, must be much warmer than this country; 
but this is not so. Even in warm places, like the lowlands on the 
coast, we do not have the extreme hot weather that is experienced in 
summer in the United States. The sea breezes refresh the atmos- 
phere at night and cool it considerabl3% making, therefore, a verj^ 
great contrast with the summer heat in this country. The medium 
climate of the Valley of Mexico, for instance, which is the one that 
has been best observed and understood, varies comparatively little be- 
tween summer and winter, its greatest variations being between day and 
night on the same day." 

It may be said that the climate of Mexico, if not the most invigor- 
ating is, without doubt, one of the most delightful in the world. The 
region of temperate lands and oceanic slopes enjoys a perpetual 
spring, being exposed neither to the severity of the northern winter 
season nor to the extreme of summer heat. 

The flora of Mexico is unrivaled. It has been remarked that the 
most striking characteristic of the Mexican flowers is their rich color. 
The prevailing hue of the flowers is alwa3^s rich and brilliant. There 
can be no more pleasing or extensive field for the botanist than the 
tropical forests of Mexico, in whose deep shades bloom the most 
exquisitely tinted flowers and orchids. In the vicinity of Orizaba, a 
locality almost incomparable as regards the great variety of flowers, 
orchid collectors may find a paradise. 

In the valley of Mexico there is no day in the year that finds the 
markets wanting in beautiful roses and flowers to delight the eye and 
regale the senses, and the marvelous size the calla lillies, heliotrope, 
camelias, and poppies attain arrests wondering attention. There are 
about 50 varieties of lilies blooming in varied garb in this valley. 
Each belt — the hot, the temperate, and the cold — displays its own 
peculiar varieties of flowers, and in each has nature spread her most 
gorgeous colors, her fairest tints, and her sweetest perfumes. 

' Published by G. P. Putna «'s Son ■, New York, 1898. 



MEXICO. 13 

The arboreal vegetation of the country embraces 114 different species 
of building and cabinet woods, among them being the pine, oak, fir, 
cedar, mahogany, rosewood, ironwood, etc.; 12 kinds of dye woods; 8 
of resinous trees^the cacao and India rubber, copal, liquid amber, 
camphor, turpentine, mesquite, dragon's blood, and the mastic. There 
are 17 varieties of oil-bearing trees and plants, among which are the 
olive, almond, sesame, flax, cocoa palm, Peruvian balsam, etc. 

The country is especially rich in medicinal plants, there being no 
less than 59 classified species of these, and many more still unclassified. 

Fibrous plants abound and their products form a large proportion 
of the export trade. The best-known fibers are the heniquen or sisal 
hemp, the ixtle, pita, maguey, jute, flax, ramie, aloe, and cotton. 

Of Mexican fruits and tobacco so much has been written that it is 
only necessary to say that through the diversified climate of that 
favored land it enjoys the fruits of every clime, and that these reach 
perfection in size and taste. The varieties are infinite. There are no 
less than twenty kinds of bananas. At the Philadelphia Commercial 
Museum, Mexico had on exhibition 1,036 samples of her woods, 18 of 
dyewoods and substances, 68 of gums and resins, 369 of medicinal 
plants, and 152 of textile fibers. A great quantity of red cedar is ex- 
ported from the State of Veracruz to the United States for the manu- 
facture of cigar boxes. There is a sawmill in this State, owned by a 
German, which is engaged in cutting up red cedar logs for such use, 
having a capacity of 4,000 tons of lumber a year. At the Tennessee 
Centennial Exposition there were exhibited some bamboos from the 
State of Veracruz 40 feet in length. The local name for these giant 
bamboos is "tarros." 

The animal kingdom is almost as extensively represented in the ter- 
ritory of Mexico as the botanical. There are three species of large 
felidse — the puma, jaguar, and ocelot. Wolves, coyotes, and wild- 
cats are numerous in the northern States. A specie of sloth inhabits 
the southern forests, which also contain five varieties of monkeys. 
Other wild animals are beavers, moles, martens, and otters. The 
armadillo and iguana are very common, and are used by some of the 
natives as food. Venomous serpents and noxious insects lurk in the 
forests of the hot lands. The mountains and foothills present a ver- 
itable paradise to the sportsman— deer, hare, rabbits, quail, wild 
pigeons, partridges, and an infinite variety of birds and ground game 
abounding. Horses, cattle, sheep, and goats are found almost every- 
where, and, are the source of much wealth and industry. 

The birds of Mexico are far-famed for their brilliant plumage and 
singing qualities. In the hot lands the birds are more distinguished 
for beauty of plumage than melody of voice, their coloring being as 
varied as that of the flowers; but in the colder belts splendid songsters 
fill the air with thrilling notes. A list of the feathered inhabitants of 
the country includes 353 species. 



14 MEXICO. 

Sperm and gray back whales, seals, aud sea lions abound in the 
western waters of Lower California and in the gulf of that name. 
The waters of both coasts, as well as the rivers aud mountain streams, 
teem with a great variety of fish.^ Alligators infest the river mouths 
of both coasts. Turtles of all kinds are also found in abundance on 
the coasts. Tortoises exist in the waters of Yucatan aud Lower 
California, as well as on the coasts of Sinaloa. The shell is an 
important article of export, amounting to about $20,000 a j^ear. Near 
La Paz, in the Gulf of California, extensive beds of pearl oysters 
exist. 

Senor Don Antonio Garcia Cubas ^ mentions 52 varieties of mammal 
quadrupeds as existing in the Republic, and 203 varieties of fowls, 
including domestic fowls, as well as over 60 kinds of humming birds, 
differing in color and shape and forming a chromatic scale of brilliant 
tints, running from sea green through bluish green to emerald green, 
and from the lightest straw color to the deepest scarlet and fiery red. 
Of reptiles the authority cited enumerates 43 classes, and of batrachians 
13 species. 

Among insects, those claiming attention are the cochineal (Coccus 
cacti) and the honey bee, because of the excellent materials they pro- 
duce beneficial to industry and to commerce. The former insect is 
cultivated in Oaxaca, living on the prickly -pear cactus, and producing 
a red liquid dye. Winterbotham, one of the last centurj^'s historians, 
in his History of America, relates that the trade in cochineal b}^ the 
cit}^ of Oaxaca alone in the year 1796 amounted to 200,000 crowns in 
value. 

The bee is to be found all over Mexico, busily producing great 
quantities of hone}'^ and wax. 

The silkworm, although comparatively neglected, is said to yield an 
annual profit of $40,000. 

The country offers a vast and rich field to the naturalist and ento- 
mologist for the study of the innumerable species of coleopter, there 
being no less than 77,000 of these catalogued. 

Baron von Humboldt, who at the beginning of the century visited 
Mexico, in his work "Political Essay of New Spain," quotes at length 
a census made in 1810 by Dr. Fernando Navarro y Noriega, according 
to which the total population of Mexico amounted then to 6,122,354 
inhabitants, divided as follows: Europeans, including ecclesiastics and 
nuns, 18 per cent; Indians, 60 per cent, and mixed races, 22 per cent. 
In 1875, according to the census, the total population had increased 

1 Since 1891 the Government has devoted much attention to pisciculture. It 
established fish hatcheries and introduced large quantities of carp, trout, and salmon 
trout. 

■■'Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, 1893 — Mexico. 



MEXICO. 



15 



to 9,495,157 inhabitants, divided as follows: Europeans and descend- 
ants of the Spaniards, 20 per cent; mixed races, 43 per cent, and 
native Indian race, 37 per cent. 

During the sixty-five years that elapsed between the two above- 
mentioned censuses, deducting from the census of 1810 the inhabitants 
of Texas, New Mexico, and Upper California (estimated at 58,338 
individuals), the increase of the population was 3,431,111, showing an 
increase in the European element of 1.1 per annum and in the mixed 
race 3.25, while the native Indian decreased at the rate of 0.58 per 
annum. 

The population of the country in 1879 amounted to 9,908,011 
inhabitants, and in 1896, according to the last official census, had 
increased to 12,619,949, as shown in the following table, prepared 
from the census of October, 1895, and the census of 1879: 



states. 



Aguascalientes . . . 

Campeche 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Coahuila 

Collma 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

MichoacAn 

Morelos 

Nuevo Le6n 

Oaxaea 

Puebla 

Quer6taro 

San Luis Potosi... 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

Yucatan 

Zacatecas 



TERRITORIES. 

Tepic 

Baja California 

Federal District 

Islands 



Total 



Area in 
English 
square 
miles. 



Population. 



11, 279 

58,345 

463 
1,471 



1895. 



104, 615 
88, 302 
319, 599 
262, 771 
241, 026 
55, 752 
286, 906 

1, 062, 554 
417, 621 
558, 769 

1, 107, 227 
841,618 
894, 753 
159, 355 
309, 252 
884, 909 
984, 413 
228, 551 
568, 449 
268, 865 
191, 281 
134, 839 
206, 502 
166, 803 
866. 365 
298, 850 
452, 578 



148, 776 
42, 245 
476, 613 



76,226 12,619,949 



140, 430 
90, 413 
205, 362 
225, 541 
130, 026 
65, 827 
190, 846 
834, 845 
295, 590 
427, 350 
983, 484 
710, 579 
661, 534 
159, 160 
203, 284 
744, 000 
784, 466 
203, 250 
616, 486 
186, 491 
115, 424 
104, 747 
140, 137 
138, 988 
542, 918 
302, 315 
422, 606 



Capitals. 



30, 208 
361, 804 



S,011 



Aguascalientes 

Campeche 

Tuxla Gutierrez . . . 

Chihuahua 

Saltillo 

Colima 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Chilpancingo 

Pachuca 

Guadalajara 

Toluca 

Morelia 

Cuernavaca 

Monterrey 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

San Luis PotosI 

Culiac^n 

Hermosillo 

San Juan Bautista. 
Ciudad Victoria . . . 

Tlaxcala 

Jalapa 

M6rida 

Zacatecas 



Popula- 
tion. 



Tepic 

fLaPaz 

1 Ensenada de Todos Santo-B. 
City of Mexico 



30, 872 
16, 647 
10, 952 
18, 279 
26, 801 
18, 977 
26, 425 
39, 404 
6,312 
40, 487 

83. 934 
23, 150 
33, 890 

8,747 
45, 695 
32, 437 
88, 684 
34, 576 
69, 050 
10, 487 

8,474 

9,604 
14, 747 

2,847 
18, 168 

36. 935 
39, 212 



16, 226 

4,737 

1,259 

329^ 774 



Of the total population, it is said that 22 per cent are of the white 
race, 31 per cent native Indians, and 47 per cent mixed races. The 
custom of tribal intermarriage and improper methods of caring for 
the young in the matter of nutriment and clothing, as well as other 
causes, is rapidly decreasing the Indian race. Density of population 
is estimated at 6.36 inhabitants per square kilometer. 



CHAPTER II. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

An impenetrable mist of fable envelops the early history of Mexico. 
Scientific investigation and archeological research have not yet lifted 
the veil to disclose the original inhabitants of that country. Ruins 
and hieroglyphics in different portions of the Republic reveal the story 
of a series of immigrations from the north toward the south, but the 
point from which the movement began has not been determined. 

Mexican historians generally agree, founding their theories on the 
interpretations of hieroglyphics and upon the ancient ruins, that the 
countrj^ was invaded by seven families successively immigrating from 
the north, all speaking the same language, the Nahuatl or Mexican; 
but history does not reveal the starting point of these races nor dis- 
close the mystery of the multiplicity of languages of so diverse a 
character spoken by the many tribes that followed them, nor the 
causes that impelled them to abandon their former homes. According 
to the Mexican scholar Pimentel, not one of the 108 indigenous tongues 
bears any analogy to Asiatic tongues, but certain resemblances to 
the language of the Esquimaux would indicate direct communication 
between Asia and America. 

The annals of the Toltecs have furnished a starting point for the his- 
tory of Mexico. These composed a semicivilized nation who inhabited 
a country called Huehuetlappallan, toward the north of the continent, 
where they built cities and temples and were versed in agriculture, 
the arts, and the computation of time. Owing to civil disturbances, 
the Toltecs, with a number of their partisans and neighbors, in the 
year 544 A. D., were expelled from their country and began their 
wanderings southward, founding cities on their way. 

One hundred and seventeen years after leaving their country they 
reached the present site of Tula (50 miles north of the City of Mexico, 
on the line of the Mexican Central Railroad), where they laid the 
foundation of their powerful kingdom. This tribe remained here 
until overthrown by the "lords of Jalisco," in 1116, eleven "mon- 
archs" having reigned. 

There is a notable event in the history of the Toltecs which deserves 

mention, as it is well authenticated. It is the origin of the universal 

and famous Mexican beverage pulque in the reign of the eighth Toltec 

chief, Tepaucaltzin. in the latter half of the eleventh century. It is 

16 



MEXICO. 17 

narrated that a noble named Papantzin discovered the method of 
extracting the juice of the maguey plant, of which it is made, and sent 
some of the fermented liquid to his chief by the hand of his daughter, 
the beautiful Xochitl, called the Flower of Tollan (Tula). The chief, 
enamored both of the drink and the maiden, retained the latter a will- 
ing prisoner, and she became the mother of his illegitimate son, who 
afterwards wielded the scepter. This incident inaugurated the troubles 
of the Toltecs. 

After the dispersion of the Toltecs, a roving tribe, the Chichimecas, 
hearing of the former's overthrow, occupied the abandoned country, 
starting for it from the north in 1117. 

Other tribes of the original seven successively'' descended from the 
north and spread themselves over the valley of Mexico, founding cities 
and erecting temples and palaces. 

The last tribe to reach the valley was the Aztec, or Mexican, whose 
annals claim the greatest interest in the history of Mexico. This tribe 
is supposed to have originally come from the north of California, 
according to the historian Clavijero, their country being called Aztlan. 
They reached Tula in 1196, remaining there nine years, and spending 
eleven in other parts of the valley. At the expiration of this time 
they arrived in Zumpango, 30 miles north of their future capital. 
Here they were well received, and the chief's son married a daughter 
of one of the Mexican families. From this marriage sprang the mili- 
tary chiefs of the Mexicans. 

After many wanderings they settled on the marshy islands near the 
western borders of Lake Texcoco, and there, in the year 1325, was 
established the nucleus of the city first called Tenochtitlan, derived, 
according to some authorities, from Tenoch, one of their priests and 
leaders. Other authorities claim that the name comes from Tenuch 
(prickly-pear cactus), as there is an old legend that the leaders of the 
tribes of Mexicans, wandering in search of a place of rest, saw an 
eagle standing upon a cactus strangling a serpent on the site of the 
City of Mexico. This legend has been generally accepted, and gave 
Mexico the design for its escutcheon. The present name of the city 
finds its source in the name of the Aztec's god of war, Mexitli, also 
known as Huitzilopochtli. The name of the country demonstrates the 
hold the maguey plant had upon the ancient tribes. Mexican tradi- 
tions, as preserved in the most ancient writings, relate that this god 
Huitzilopochtli was born of a virgin belonging to the noble family of 
Citli (free and ancestral) ; that his cradle was the heart of a maguey 
plant (metl), and hence the name of Mecitli, afterwards changed into 
Mexitli, and finally into Mexico. 

Here the Aztecs constituted their first government, which was theo- 
cratic and military, under Tenoch, who died in the year 1343. Three 
years subsequent to his death the form of government changed, and 
651a 2 



18 MEXICO. 

in i37() the first king was elected. Ten kings followed, diii-ing the 
reign of which the Aztecs devoted themselves to the arts of peace and 
built a fine city, connecting it with the mainland b}" four causewa3^s. 
The last of the Aztec monarchs was Cuauhtemoc, whose conquest by 
Hernando Cortes brought an end to the Mexican d3alast3^ 

Cortes landed on the island of San Juan de Ulua, in Veracruz Har- 
bor on the 21st day of April, 1519, and in two years, August 13, 1521, 
had captured the City of Mexico and unfurled the flag of Spain over 
the palace of Moctezuma. 

Under the name of New Spain, Mexico was ruled from 1521 to 1821 
successively by five governors, two ro^^al commissioners {audiencias)^ 
and sixty-two viceroys, the last of whom, Juan O'Donoju, did not 
assume control. 

During" the administration of the first viceroy, Don Antonio de Men- 
doza, who ruled from 1535 to 1550, discoveries were actively prosecuted 
in the north, the first money was coined in Mexico, the Universit}^ of 
Mexico and several colleges were founded, and the first printing press 
in the New World was introduced. The School of Mines, which is 
still standing, and yearly graduating talented men, was founded by 
the viceroy the Marquis of Branciforte. The construction was begun 
in 1797, and the building was completed in 1813. Its total cost was 
about $2,000,000. 

The modern history of Mexico and the commencement of the almost 
continuous internecine wars may be said to date from the ' ' grito de 
Dolores" on the night of the 16th of September, 1810, by the parish 
priest of Dolores, Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who gathered about 
him many trusty followers under his banner to the cry of: "Long 
live religion! Long live our Most Holy Mother of Guadalupe! Long 
live America, and death to bad government!" This cry is what is 
known as "el grito de Dolores." 

Several efforts to cause a rebellion against the Spanish authorities 
had been made previous to this date, in fact ever since 1798, during 
the incumbency of the forty -fifth viceroy, Miguel Jose de Azanza, 
but they were all suppressed. 

Hidalgo marshaled a considerable force and was victorious in 
several engagements, but he and his lieutenants — Ailende, Aldama, 
and Jimenez^ — were captured and put to death in 1811, the first on the 
31st of 3v\j and the three last-named on June 26. The bullets that 
crashed through these patriotic breasts terminated the first stage of 
the war for independence. 

One of the greatest figures in Mexican histor}^ then came to the 
front, Jose Maria Morelos y Pa von, the parish priest of Caracuaro, 
who by his audacity, valor, and military sagacity was accorded a posi- 
tion at the head of the leaders of the cause of independence. After 
many notable engagements, in which he was almost always victorious, 



MEXICO. 19 

he captured Acapulco on April 12, 1813, thus ending his second cam- 
paign. On the 14th of September, 1813, in the town of Chilpancingo, 
the first Mexican Congress was installed, which two months later 
(November 6) issued the declaration of independence and decreed the 
emancipation of the slaves. The first provisional constitution was 
adopted October 22, 1814. 

Morelos was eventually overcome by being betrayed by a deserter 
from his ranks named Carranco, was taken to Mexico, tried, and sen- 
tenced to be shot. The sentence was carried out at San Cristobal 
Ecatepec on the 22d of December, 1815. 

But the cause of independence was still sustained by many leaders 
in different parts of the Republic, among them being Francisco Javier 
Mina, a Spanish officer, who resolved to do battle for the independ- 
ence of Mexico. He disembarked at the port of Soto la Marina on 
April 15, 1817, with 500 men recruited in the United States, and 
marched rapidly into the interior, gaining many victories. He was 
apprehended at the ranch called Venadito, and was shot the 11th 
of November, 1817. Many other patriot chiefs arose to lead the inde- 
pendent movement, but most of them met the fate of their predeces- 
sors. Among these was Guerrero, who, after many hazardous exploits 
and brilliant achievements, finally, on the 10th of January, 1821, held 
a conference with Agustin de Yturbide, brigadier-general in command 
of the royalist forces, at Yturbide's request, and the two leaders agreed 
to proclaim independence. The latter proclaimed what is known as 
"The Plan of Iguala," on February 24, 1821. 

Yturbide, then assuming command of the forces, marched on Me- 
xico, making Valladolid (now Morelia), Queretaro, and Puebla capitu- 
late on the way. On reaching Mexico the Viceroy Apodaca was 
deposed July 5, 1821. 

The sixty-second and last viceroy, Juan O'Donoju, arrived at Vera- 
cruz on the 30th of Jul}^, and, upon hearing of the condition of affairs, 
issued a proclamation and entered into communication with the inde- 
pendents. Yturbide went to Cordoba, where a conference was held, 
resulting in the treaty of Cordoba, which, with slight modifications, 
confirmed the plan of Iguala, and Spanish domination in Mexico, 
which had lasted three hundred years, closed forever when, on the 
27th of September, 1821, Yturbide made his triumphal entry into the 
capital. 

The second Mexican Congress, the first after securing independence, 
met on February 24, 1822, and elected Yturbide Emperor on the 19th 
of May of the same 3^ear. He was crowned and anointed with great 
pomp and ceremony in the great cathedral of the capital on the 21st 
of June following as Agustin I, Emperor of Mexico. His reign was 
short. The people who had been warring so long could not settle 
down to peaceful pursuits. Ambitious leaders thirsted for high places, 



20 MEXICO. 

and the smoke of the battles for independence had scarce lifted before 
General Santa-Anna headed a revolutionary movement in Veracruz, 
proclaimed a republican form of government, and compelled Yturl^ide 
to abdicate and leave the countr3^ He became desirous to revisit it, 
and, returning to Mexico, was arrested immediately upon disembark- 
ing, taken to Padilla, brought before the legislature of Tamaulipas in 
session there, and by that body condemned to death. He was shot 
July 19, 1824, just five days after landing. 

The Federal Republic was established on the ruins of the Empire. 
The third Mexican Congress assembled November T, 1823, and pro- 
claimed on October 4, 1824, a republican constitution, which was pat- 
terned closely upon that of the United States. The first President of 
Mexico, the patriot Gen. Guadalupe Victoria, took the oath of office 
on October 10, Congress was dissolved December 24, 1824, and the 
first constitutional Congress convened January 1, 1825. During this 
year England and the United States formally recognized Mexico. 

Independence being secured, two parties came into existence — the 
Spanish, which became the Centralists, and the Republicans, who 
became Federalists. To this division is due the constant internal dis- 
turbances and agitations in Mexico from 1828 to 1846. During this 
period five radical organic changes swayed the people between central- 
ism and federation. 

The two parties succeeded each other in power, mostly through revo- 
lutions, until 1847, when the war with the United States, which had 
commenced the year previous, ended and the latter nation acquired 
more than two-fifths of the Mexican territory. After the declaration 
of peace between the two countries the Mexican Liberal party remained 
in power (except from 1863 to 1855, when General Santa- Anna gov- 
erned as Dictator), carrying out its theories of government. In the 
year 1857 the Constitution now in force in Mexico was framed by a 
constitutional assembly. 

In 1861 England, Spain, and France formed an alliance to declare 
war against Mexico, but the alliance had been scarcely perfected when 
the two first-named powers withdrew and France was left alone in the 
enterprise. War between the two nations lasted from 1862 until 1867 
without the French gaining any decided foothold. 

Possessing themselves finally of the capital, they established an 
empire, aided by a number of disafi'ected Mexicans, and placed the 
crown upon Maximilian of Hapsburg, Archduke of Austria. 

The Archduke arrived in the city of Mexico on June 12, 1864, accom- 
panied by his wife, Carlota, daughter of Leopold I, King of the Bel- 
gians. These two unfortunate beings were crowned Emperor and 
Empress of Mexico with great solemnit}^ in the cathedral and ruled a 
portion of the country until 1867, when the perfid}^ of Bazaine and the 
cowardice of Napoleon IH destroyed the life of Maximilian and the 
reason of Carlota. 



MEXICO. 21 

Maximilian, bereft of the aid and protection of the French, 
intrenched himself in Queretaro, where he was made prisoner by the 
Republicans and shot, together with the Imperialist Generals Miramon 
and Mexia, at the Cerro de las Campanas, the 19th of June, 1867. 

Benito Juarez, of Indian birth, and possessed of great ability, patri- 
otism, and energy, was the President of the Republic during the tur- 
bulent times of the reformation and the war with France. He entered 
the capital victorious on the 15th of July, 1867, and retained the Pres- 
idency until his death, in 1872, being the only Mexican who has died 
during an occupancy of that office. His immediate successor was 
Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, who retained the office until 1876, when he 
was unseated b};- the revolution of Palo Blanco. Gen. Porfirio Diaz 
succeeded Lerdo de Tejada in May, 1877, and was followed by Gen. 
Manuel Gonzalez in 1880, In 1884 General Diaz was elected to a 
second term, and has since continued at the head of the Govern- 
ment. His administration has been attended with great progress and 
prosperity. 

The governments of Mexico since the securing of independence have 
been as follows: 

Regencies. — (1) Composed of Generalisimo Don Agustin de Yturbide, 
Don Juan O'Donoju, Don Manuel de la Barcena, Don Isidro Yanez, 
and Don Manuel Velasquez de Leon, 1821 to 1822. (2) Don Agustin 
de Yturbide, Don Isidro Yanez, Don Miguel Valentin, Count de Casa 
de Heras, and Brig. Gen. Don Nicolas Bravo, 1822. 

^m^^Ve.— Yturbide, with the title of Agustin I, 1822 to 1823. 

Provisional Govermnents. — The council charged with the supreme 
executive power, composed of Don Nicolas Bravo, Don Guadalupe 
Victoria, and Don Pedro Negrete, with Don Jose Maria Michelena and 
Don Miguel Dominguez as substitutes, 1823 to 1824. 

Federal Republic. — Gen. Guadalupe Victoria, 1823 to 1829; Gen. 
Vicente Guerrero, 1829; Don Jose Maria Bocanegra, 1829; Don Pedro 
Velez, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, Gen. Luis Quintanar 
and Don Lucas Alaman, 1829; Gen. Anastacio Bustamante, 1830 to 
1832; Gen. Melchor Musquiz, 1832; Gen. Manuel Gomez Pedraza, 
1832 to 1833; Don Valentin Gomez Farias, 1833; Gen. Antonio Lopez 
de Santa- Anna, 1833; Don Valentin Gomez Farias, 1833 to 1834; Gen. 
Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, 1834 to 1836; Gen. Miguel Barragan, 
1836 to 1836; Don Jose Justo Corro, 1836 to 1837. 

Central RepuUic. — Gen. Anastacio Bustamante, 1837 to 1839; Gen. 
Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna (substitute), 1839; Gen. Nicolas Bravo 
(substitute), 1839; Gen. Anastacio Bustamante, 1839 to 1841; Don 
Javier Echeverria, 1841. 

Dictatorships. — Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1841 to 1842; 
Gen. Nicolas Bravo, 1842 to 1843; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- 
Anna, 1843; Gen. Valentin Canalizo, 1843 to 1844. 



22 MEXICO. 

Central RepnhUc. — Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1844; Gen. 
Valentin Canalizo, 1844; Gen. Jose Ignacio Herrera, 1841: to 1845; 
Gen. Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga, 1846; Gen. Nicolas Bravo, 1846. 

Federal RepuhUc. — Gen. Mariano Salas, 1846; Don Valentin Gomez 
Farias, 1846 to 1847; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1847; Gen. 
Pedro Maria A nay a, 1847; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1847; 
Don Manuel de la Pena y Pena, President of the Supreme Court of 
Justice, 1847; Gen. Pedro Maria Anaya, 1847 to 1848; Don Manuel de 
la Pena y Pena, 1848; Gen. Jose Joaquin de Herrera, 1848 to 1851; 
Gen. Mariano Arista, 1851 to 1853; Don Juan B. Ceballos, President 
Supreme Court of Justice, 1853. 

Dictatorships. — Gen.Manuel Maria Lombardini, 1853; Gen. Antonio 
Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1853 to 1855; Gen. Romulo Diaz de la Vega, 
1855; Gen. Martin Carrera, 1855; Gen. Juan Alvarez, 1855; Gen. 
Ignacio Coraonfort, 1855 to 1857. 

Constitutional Presidents.— Gqi\. Ignacio Comonfort, 1857 to 1858; 
Don Benito Juarez, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, 1858 to 
1861. Don Benito Juarez (elected), 1861 to 1872; Don Sebastian 
Lerdo de Tejada, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, 1872; 
Don Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada (elected), 1872 to 1876; Gen. Portirio 
Diaz (provisional), 1876; Gen. Juan N. Mendez (substitute), 1876; Gen. 
Porfirio Diaz (elected), 1877 to 1880; Gen. Manuel Gonzalez, 1880 to 
1884; Gen. Porfirio Diaz, 1884 to 1888; Gen. Porfirio Diaz, 1888 (still 
in oflice, serving fourth consecutive term). 

During the years from 1857 to 1860, in the capital of the Republic, 
which at the time was in the power of the Conservative party, there 
governed in the capacity of Presidents the following persons: 

Gen. Felix Zuloaga, 1857; Gen. Manuel Robles Pezuela, 1858; Don 
Jose Ignacio Pavon, 1858; Gen. Miguel Miramon, 1858; Gen. Felix 
Zuloaga, 1859; Gen. Miguel Miramon, 1859 to 1861. 

As a result of the French intervention, the Imperial Government 
was established from 1864 to 1867. 

While awaiting the arrival of the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, 
Bishop Juan B. Ormachea and Generals Juan N. Almonte and Mariano 
Salas governed as regents. 



CHAPTER III. 

ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY OF Mi^XICO. 

By Otis T. Mason, 
Oarator of the Division of Ethnology in the United States National Museum. 

No attempt is here made to resolve into its constituent ethnic ele- 
ments that remarkably composite people which first set eyes on 
Yucatan in 1517. Suffice it to say that Iberian, Semite, Hamite, Goth 
and Vandal, Roman and Celt had mingled their blood in that stream of 
brave and adventurous men. From remotest time Spain had been the 
meeting ground of races, of peoples, of languages, and of religions. 
One does not know which to admire more — the brilliant recklessness 
of the soldier or the fiery zeal of the priest. The Mexican of to-day 
has the blood of more races in his veins than any other American, and 
as the present Indian population is largely metis, what a compound 
of races! "No other portion of the globe," says H. H. Bancroft 
(1874, ii, 87), "embraces within equal latitudinal limits so great a 
variety of climate and vegetation as Mexico." It is also true that 
within the area of the original territory there were more families of 
native languages than in all the Western Hemisphere besides; and, to 
complete the chain, there were more kinds and grades of culture 
there. The Seri Indians, of Sonora, are as abject as the Fuegians, 
while the Nahuatl and Maya speaking tribes of the valley of Mexico 
and of Yucatan occupied the most elevated position for culture in the 
New World. 

The origin of the Mexican aborigines is involved in that of the 
American Indians, since within the present boundaries of that Repub- 
lic are gathered representatives of every zone, from the Apache, an 
Athapascan, whose principal home is in Alaska, to the tribes of 
Oaxaca and Chiapas, who are the children of a torrid clime. There 
are now in Mexico ten times more Indians than were ever at any 
time within the United States domain. In the works of Orozco y 
Berra (1864), Pimentel (1862), and Alfonso L. Herrera (1895) the 
reader will find complete lists of all tribal names. These include, 
often, several titles for the same tribe, to wit, their own name, by 
which they call themselves; their place name, as we now mark persons 
by the town where they live; names, often of contempt, by which a tribe 
is desigated among its neighbors, besides titles conferred through mis- 

23 



24 



MEXICO. 



take by ignorant observers. From among all these bewildering desig- 
nations the following are selected. The linguistic families are marked 
by the termination -an, after the example of the Bureau of American 
Ethnology. In assigning tribes to their stocks frequent references 
are made to Brinton (1891) and Gatschet (1885). The last-mentioned 
authority has given most personal study to the Nahuatlan family since 
Buschman (1859). 

Mention must also be made of the linguistic map in Cubas (1876) and 
to Keane (18TS). In the table the family names of Pimentel appear in 
the order followed by that author. On the right is given the abbre- 
viated form here adopted. The numbers in the margin are Pimentel's. 
Following this list of families another will be found, in which the 
states of the Republic wherein the families chiefl}'^ reside accompany 
the name of each. It is quite possible that these may need emendation, 
but the information here given is the best at hand. 

lAngtiistic families in Mixico. 



Pimentel's list (1862). 



Author's list (1900). 



Census in 
1895. 



Mexicana 

Sonorense Opata-Pima 

Guaieura («) v Cochimi-Laimon 

Seri 

Tarasca 

Zoque-Mixe 

Totonaca 

Mixteco-Zapoteca 

Matlalzinga o Pirinda 

Maya-Quich(5 

Chontal (not a family name) . . . 

Huave 

Apache 

Othomi^s 



Total . 



Nahuatlan 

Piman 

Yuman 

Serian 

Tarasean 

Zoquean 

Totonacan 

Zapotecan 

Otomian (not certain). 

Mayan 

Tequistlatecan (?) 

Huavan 

Athapascan 

Otomian : . . . 



1, 750, 000 

85,000 

2,500 

200 

250, 000 

60,000 

90,000 

580, 000 

5,000 

400, 000 

31,000 

3,800 

8,000 

704, 734 



63, 970, 234 



a Guaieura may be a separate family. 

b These numbers are not accurate, but serve for comparison. 



LOCATION OF MEXICAN LINGUISTIC FAMILIES. 

Nahuatlan or Mexican family. — Aguascalientes, Colima, Federal 
District, Guerero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Morelos, 
Oaxaca, Puebla, Sinaloa, Tabasco, Tlaxcala, Veracruz. 

Piman family. — Made a subfamily of Nahuatlan by Buschmann 
(1859), Gatschet (1879), and Brinton (1891); Chihuahua, Durango, 
Jalisco, Sinaloa, Sonora, Zacatecas. 

Yuman fa'iuily . — Northern part of Lower California. 

Serian family. — Sonora, Tiburon Island. 

Tarasean family . — Michoacan, a few in Guerrero and Jalisco. 

Zoquean family . — Oaxaca, chieflj^; also Guerrero and Puebla. 

Totonacan family . — Northern part of Puebla and Veracruz. 

Zapotecan family . — Chiefly in Oaxaca; also in Guerrero and Puebla. 

Mayan family . — Yucatan, Chiapas, and Veracruz. 



MEXICO. 25 

Tequistlatecan family. — Oaxaea (Brinton, 1891, p. 148). 
Hucunmi fainlhj. — Chiapas. 

Athapascan family. — Chihuahua and Sonora. Apache intruders 
from United States. 

Otomian /awi/y.— Guanajuato, Hidalg-o, Queretaro, San Luis 
Potosi, Michoacan. The Chontals of Oaxaea and Guerrero are placed 
by Brinton in a provisional familj^, which he names Tequistlatecan, 
and puts the Triquis in the same. The Chontals of Tobasco are 
Ma3^an (1891, p. 146). Matlalzinca may be a family. Not in Pimentel's 
list are the Chinantecan family, in Oaxaea; the Chiapanecan family, in 
Chiapas, and a remnant of the Tanoan family, in Chihuahua. 

A glance at the table of linguistic families shows their relative im- 
portance. The census is from Herrera (1895), and may be defective, 
but is correct enough to exhibit the relative importance of these fam- 
ilies in the past and present history of Mexico. Those that were, in 
fact, the predominant factors in that culture were, proceeding south- 
ward from the boundary line of the United States, as follows: 

Piman, the Opata-Pima of the later Mexican authorities, occupy 
the western northern States as far south as Guadalajara, lying along 
the Gulf of California, except where they are cut off by the Seri, but 
they do not anywhere approach the ocean, being intercepted by the 
Nahuatlan tribes. Eminent authorities, among them Buschmann (1854), 
Gatschet (1876), and Brinton hold the Piman to be a branch of the 
Nahuatlan family, including the Shoshonean in the United States 
(Powell, 1891, p. 108), the Sonoran or Opata-Pima (Brinton, 1891), and 
the Nahuatl or southern branch. This stock now occupies the site of the 
Casas Grandes and other adobe ruins, and it is reasonable to suppose 
that their ancestors were the builders and inhabitants of many ancient 
pueblos and cliff sites, both in Arizona and northern Mexico. (Ban- 
delier, 1890.) 

Nahuatlan.— Following the Bureau of American Ethnology in 
keeping the Piman as a separate family leaves the Nahuatlan free to 
include only Pimentel's Mexicana. The tribes of this stock are found 
in almost unbroken continuity from Sinaloa along the Pacific slope to 
the border line of Guatemala. In the valley of Mexico they occupied 
three districts, Tezcuco, Tlacopan, and Tenochtitlan. This family 
holds the most prominent position in the history of the Conquest. 
(Thomas, 1898, 233; Bancroft, 1875, ii, 133; Cubas, 1876.) 

Otomian, a widely spoken language formerly. The tribes were 
among the earliest in the valley of Mexico, and they spread themselves 
out over Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Queretaro, San Luis, and Michoacan. 

Tarascan, inhabitants of Michoacan. The Tarascos were builders in 
stone, metal workers, and most excellent weavers. (Leon, 1874.) 

Totonacan, of Veracruz, the first natives encountered by Cortes. 
(Thomas, 1898, 332.) 



26 MEXICO. 

Zapotecan, the Mixteco-Zapoteca, of Pimentel, are in Oaxaca and 
Guerrero. The ruins of Mitla are within their territory, with their 
wonderful artiticial hills, stone buildings, fretworks in cut stones, 
columns, and wall paintings. (Holmes, 1897, 227, quoting Charnay & 
Bandelier.) 

Zoquean, Zoque-Mixe family are in Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Tabasco, 
between the Mayan and the Zapotecan tribes. Little is known of their 
origin, save a tradition of their having come from the South. If their 
ancestors were ever possessed by the spirit of culture progress, once 
so exalted here, the pride of former days now sleeps '' as though that 
soul were dead." 

Ma3^an family, the advance guard of new world progress. Scholars 
have consecrated their lives worthil}'^ to the Maj^a civilization. After 
Bancroft (75, ii, 630-805), consult Holmes (1895, pt. i), Brinton 
(91, 163-159, with notes), Thomas (1899), Seler (1887), Maudslay 
(1897), Forstemann (1890), Gunckel (1897). 

The Mayas, excepting a colon j^ of Huastecas, on the Rio Panuco, in 
Veracruz, lived together in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Honduras 
(Stoll, 1884, 180 pp.). To them may be assigned the wonderful ruins 
of Palenque in Chiapas, of Copan, in Honduras, of Uxmal and Chichen- 
Itza, in Yucatan. 

The following tribal names have been selected out of the many 
hundreds of designations before mentioned, because it seemed possible 
to assign these to their linguistic families and locations. The list will 
at least form a working basis for future inclusions and exclusions: 

ABORIGINAL TRIBES IN THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO, TOGETHER WITH THEIR LINGUISTIC 

FAMILIES AND LfCALITIES. 

Acaxees (Nahuatlan F. ) , Sinaloa, Dtirango. 

Acxotecas (Nahuatlan F. ) , Mexico, ancient division of Chichimecs. 

Acolhuas (Nahuatlan F.), Mexico, ancient ruling tribe, Colhuas. 

Agualulco (Nahuatlan F.), Tabasco, also Ahualulco. 

Ahomaos (Piman F.), Sinaloa, also Ahomes. 

Aicales (Mayan F.), Chiapas, dialect of Choi., see Mopanes. 

Ajoyes (Mayan F.) Chiapas, dialect of Choi., also Axoyes. 

Alames (Mayan F.), Chiapas. 

Alasapa (Coahuiltecan F.), Coahuila, N. Leon. 

Amuchgos (Zapotecan F.), Guerrero, also Amusgos. 

Apache (Athapascan F.), Northern boundary; the Apaches of Yuma affinity are 
all in the United States. 

Aripas (Yuman F.), lower California, branch of Waikuru. 

Ateacaris (Nahuatlan F.), Jalisco, Cora proper. 

Aztecas (Nahuatlan F.) , Mexicans of Anahuac. Seven tribes came from Aztlan in 
the north, and the Aztecas were one of them. They arrived in the following order: 
Sochomilcos, Chalcas, Tepanecos, Tescucans, Tlatluicans, Tlascalans, Mexicans, or 
Aztecas. 

Babiocora (Piman F.), branch of Teguima, Teguis. 

Basirora (Piman F.), Sonora, Sinaloa. 



MEXICO. 27 

Batucari (Piman F.) Sinaloa. 

Batuccs (Piman F.), Sonora, division of Teguis. 

Benixonos (Zapotecan F.), same as Cahoncos or Nexicha. 

Biara (Piman F.), Sinaloa, dialect of Tehues. 

Cahita (Piman F.), Sonora, Sinaloa, include Yaquis, Mayos, Tehuecos, Zuaques. 

Cajonos (Zapotecan F.), same as Benixonos. 

Cd,tuxanos (Coahuiltecan F.), Coah., Tarn., also Catuxanos. 

Ceris, same as Seris. 

Coahuiltecan Family, Texas and N. E. Mexico; also Texan. 

Coahuiltecos (Coahuiltecan F. ) , Coahuila. 

Cochimis ( Yuman F. ) , north and middle California peninsula. 

Cocomaricopas (Yuman F.), Maricopas, Pima agency, Ariz. 

Cocomes (Mayan F.), said to be in Yucatdn. 

Cocopas (Yuman F.) , both sides of Colorado mouth; river and mountain tribes. 

Coguinaches (Pmian F.), Sonora, division of Opata. 

Cohuixcas (Nahuatlan F. ) , Guerrero. 

Colotlans (Nahuatlan F. ) , name of country for Coras, Zac. , Jalisco. 

Comanche (Shoshonean F.), northern border of Mex., now in Oklahoma. 

Comitecos (Mayan F.), Chiapas; Chaiiabal of Comitan. 

Comecrudos (Coahuiltecan F.), Tamaulipas, wrongly Carrizos. 

Comeyas (Yuman F.), southern California, probably Dieguenos. 

Comoporis (Piman F.), Sinaloa. 

Comoyei (Yuman F.), between Colorado River and ocean; Comeya, Quemaya. 

Comuripas (Piman F.), Sonora. 

Conchos (Yuman F.), California, branch of Guaicuru. 

Conchos (Coahuiltecan F.), Chihuahua. 

Corarus (Nahuatlan F. ) , Jalisco. 

Coras (Nahuatlan F.), Jalisco, in Sierra del Nayarit. 

Coras (Yuman F. ) , Lower California. 

Cotoname (Coahuiltecan F.), Tamaulipas. 

Coviscos (Zoquean F.), Puebla, Cahuixcas, dialect of Mixe (Brinton). 

Coyoteros (Athapascan F.), northern boundary ; now Arizona. 

Cuchan (Yuman F.) , Yuman proper, in Arizona and California, south part of State. 

Cuicatecos (Zapotecan F. ) , Oaxaca. 

Cuitlatecos (Nahuatlan F.), Guerrero, Michoacan, Tecos; also Popolocas. 

Culuas (Nahuatlan F.), Mexico; Colhuas, identified with Tezcucans. 

Chalcas (Nahuatlan F.), Mexico, also Chalcotecanos; around the lake of Chalco, 
"where sand is." 

Chalquefios (Nahuatlan F.), Mexico; same as Chalcas. 

Chamules (Mayan F.), Chiapas, are Tzental. 

Chafiabales (Mayan F.), Chiapas; Comiteco, Jocolobal. 

Changuaguanes (Athapascan F.), Chihuahua. 

Chapanecos (Chiapanecan F.), Chiapas., Mangues in Nicaragua. 

Charaeos (Otomian F.), Michoacdn; Pirindas. 

Charenses) Otomian F.), Michoacdn; Pirindas. 

Chatinos (Zapotecan F.), Oaxaca and Chiapas. 

Chayopinos (Coahuiltecan F.), Coahuila. 

Cheles (Mayan F.),Yucatdn. 

Chiapanecan family, with remnants in Chiapas. 

Chichimecos, ancient tribe of Mexico, not a family; Brinton, 1894, 129; some 
were Nahuatlan, some Otomian. 

Chilpaines (Athapascan F.) , Coahuila. 

Chimalapas (Zoquean F) , Tehuantepec. 

Chimalpanecs (Nahuatlan F. ) , ward of Tezcuco. 



28 MEXICO. 

Chinantecan family, Oaxaca; Teiiez, Teutecas, Tzinantecos; Brinton, 1894, 144, 158. 

Chinarras (Nahuatlan F.), Chihuahua; Huuias. 

Chiniiia (Piman F.),Chih., div. of Tarahuniara; see Varogio. 

Chinquimes (Zoquean F.), Puebla, Guerrero, Tlapanecos, possibly the ancient 
Xiximes. 

Chochona (Zapotecan F.) , Oaxaca. Put also with Tlapaneco. 

Choles (Mayan F.) , Chiapas. 

Chorotegas (Chiapanecan F.), or Cholutecas; Nicaragua. 

Chuchones (Zapotecan F. ), Oaxaca, Guerrero. 

Cuitlatecos (Nahuatlan F.) , tribe of Mexicans, " dunghill people." 

Chontals, non-Nahuatl tribes; the word means "outcasts;" Brinton, 1894, .s. v. 

Chontals (Mayan F.), Tabasco; identified with Tzental. 

Chontals (Tequistlatecan F.), Oaxaca; Brinton; Belmar makes them Zapotecan. 

Dohmes (Piman F.), Sonora, Dohemabatuco ; see Eudeve; is probably a local 
name. 

Eudeves (Piman F.) , Sonora; branch of Opatas. 

Guaicuru (Yuman F. ), Lower California; may be a separate family (Gatschet). 

Guailopos (Piman F.), Chihuahua; see Chinipas. 

Guaymas (Piman F. ) , Sonora. 

Guazapari (Nahuatlan F. ) , Chihuahua. 

Heve (Piman F.), Sonora; see Doheme, Eudeve. 

Hichucios (Piman F.) , Sinaloa, dial, of Tehueco. 

Himeris (Piman F. ) , Sonora. 

Hizos (Piman F.), Chihuahua. 

Huastecas (Mayan F.), Veracruz; Huaxtec. 

Huavan family, Tehuantepec; also written Huavi, Wabi. 

Huaztontecos (Huavan F. ), Tehuantepec. 

Huicholes (Nahuatlan F.), Zacatecas, Jalisco. 

Huites (Nahuatlan F.) , Sinaloa. 

Humas (Nahuatlan F.), Chihuahua; Chinarras. 

Humes (Nahuatlan F.) , Durango; Hiumi (Latham) , Acax6. 

Husorones (Piman F.), Chihuahua, dial, of Tarahumara. 

Ipapanes (Totonacan F. ) . Keane puts with Huaxtec. 

Itza (Mayan F.), Yucatan, Chichen-Itzae; Itzalanos. 

Jaripecha (Tarascan F.), Guanajuato. 

Jocolabal (Mayan F.), Chiapas; Chanabal. 

Jonaz (Otomian F.) , Guanajuato, Quer^taro. 

Jopes (Zoquean F.), Chiapas; Tlapanecos, Yopes. 

Jovas (Piman F.), Sonora; Jobas, Ovas, dial, of Opata, perhaps the same as the 
Eudeves or Heves. 

Juaves, same as Huave, Huavan family. 

Kupules (Mayan F.), Yucatdn. 

Kutchan (Yuman F.), Lower Colorado River; Ko-Utchan, Cutganes. 

Lacandones (Mayan F.), Chiapas, not a language (Berendt). 

Laimonos (Yuman F.), Cal. peninsula, with Cochimi. 

Matapanes (Piman F.), Sinaloa. 

Matlalzincos, or Matlalzingas, Nahuatl name for Pirinida. May be a family 
(Saville.) 

Matlames, same as Matlalzincos, with ending-tzin removed. 

Maya (Mayan F.), Yucatan, Tabasco, and Chiapas. 

Mayan family. All over southeastern Mexico. 

Mayos (Piman F.), Sonora, subtribe of Cahita. 

Mazahua (Otomian F.), southwestern part of valley of Mexico; Michoacano. 

Mazapil (Nahuatlan F.) , Zacatecas. 



MEXICO. 29 

Mecos (Otomian F.), Zacatecas; see Jonaz, Serrano. Mecos seems abbreviation of 
a longer tribal name, as with Teco, Tecos. 

Mazatecos (Zapotecan F.), Oaxaca; anct. Mazatlan. 

Mecos (Otomian F.), Guxanajuato; see Jonaz. 

Mexicanoa (Nahuatlan F.). The southern Nahuatlan tribes, so called. 

Meztitlatecas (Nahuatlan F.), Mexico. 

Michoas (Tarascan F.), Michoacan. 

Mijes (Zoquean F.), Oaxaca; also Mixes. 

Mimbrenos (Athapascan) , Sonora, or Arizona. 

Mixtecos (Zapotecan F.), Oax., Pueb., Guer., Miztoguijxi. 

Monquies (Yuman F.). See Waicuru. 

Mopanes (Mayan F.) , Chiapas, are Choles. This problematic tribe probablj^ speaks 
Maya. 

Muutzizti (Piman F.), Jalisco, branch of Cora, Muutzicat. 

Nahuatl and Nahua, instead of Aztec or Mexican, the "national" designation; 
divided into northern, or Piman (Sonoran) , and southern, or Mexican (Gatschet) . 

Nahuatlan family includes all so-called Uto-Aztecan tribes in Mexico. 

Naolingos (Totonacan F. ) , Veracruz, Puebla. 

Nayaritos (Nahuan F.) , same as Coras. 

Nevomes (Piman F. ) , Sonora. 

Netzichos (Zapotecan F.), Oaxaca; also Nexitzas. 

Niquiran (Nahuatlan F.), Mexico. 

Ocotlanos (Zapotecan F.), Oaxaca. 

Olmecas, preceded fabled Toltecs in Mexico. Language unknown. 

Onavas (Piman F.), Sonora, branch of Opatas. The name means "salt." 

Opata (Piman F.), Sonora, Rio Yaqui. 

Otomi (Otomian F.), Middle States, many spellings. Mexico, Veracruz, Pueblo, 
Tlaxcala, Quer^taro, Guanajuato, San Luis, Michoacdn. 

Pacheras (Piman F.), Chihuahua, branch of Tarahumara. 

Pames (Otomian F.), Mexico, Queretaro, Guanajuato, Nuevo Leon, San Luis. 

Pantecos (Mayan F.), Veracruz, are Huaxtecs. 

Papagos (Piman F.) , Sonora, some in Arizona (southern) . 

Pauzanes (Coahuiltecan F. ) , Coahuila. 

Pericues (Yuman F. ) , Lower California. 

Pihiques (Coahuiltecan F.) , Coahuila, Mexico. 

Pimas (Piman F.) , Sonora; P. Altos and P. Bajos. 

Pinomes (Zoquean F.) , Tabasco, Oaxaca, Chiapas; Tlapanecos. 

Pirindas (Otomian F.), Michoacan, Mexico; same as Matlaltzincas; pirinti means 
" interior (tribe) " in Matlaltz language. May be a family. 

Piros (Tanoan F.), Chihuahua. 

Popolucas, non-Nahuatl tribes of southern Mexico. 

Popolucas of Oaxaca, are Zapotecan. 

Popolucas of Puebla, are Zoquean; the popolucas of southern Guatemala also speak 
Mixe (a Zoquean dialect) . 

Potlapiguaa (Piman F.) , Sonora, dialect of Pima. 

Putum (Mayan F.), Chiapas, wrongly Punctunc; see Choi. 

Sabaibos (Nahuatlan F.) , Sinaloa, Durango; see Acaxees. 

Sabaquis (Piman F. ) ; same as Sobaipuris. 

Saharipas (Piman F.), Sonora. 

Seris (Yuman F.) , Sonora; same as Ceris. 

Serranos (Otomian F.), Tamaulipas, probably. 

Sinaloas (Piman F.), Sinaloa; see Cahitas. 

Sobaipuris (Piman F. ) , Sonora. 

Sochimilcos (Nahuatlan F.), first of seven original Mexican cave-dwelling tiibes. 



30 MEXICO. 

Soltecos (Zapotecan F.),Oaxaca. 

Sonoras (Piman F.),Sonora; Opatas. 

Siipis (Yiiman F.), Chihuahua. The Hava su-Pai, also of Arizona. These are 
Yuman. 

Tanoaii family, on the Rio Grande and its tributaries. (Bivell.) 

Tantoyoc (Mayan F.) , dialect of Huaxtec. 

Tapanecos (Nahuatlan F.), original Mexican tribe. 

Tapijulapanes (Zoquean F.), Tehuantepec. 

Tarahumaras (Piman F.) , Chihuahua. 

Tarascos (Tarascan F.), Michoacin; also Guerrero, Guanajuato, Jalisco. 

Tarelepa (Mayan F. ) , southern Mexico. 

Tatimoles (Totonacan F.), Veracruz. 

Teacualitzistis (Nahuatlan F.) , branch of Cora del Nayarit. 

Teatas (Piman F.) Sonora; also Tehatas. 

Tebacas (Nahuatlan F.), branch of Acaxees. 

Tecojines (Zoquean F.) Jalisco, Tlapanecos. 

Tecoripas (Piman F. ) , Sonora. 

Tecos (Nahuatlan F.) , Michoacan, for Cuitlatecos. 

Tecualmes (Piman F. ?), Jalisco; see Coras. 

Tegxiimas (Piman F.), Sonora; Opata, Teguis. 

Tehua (Tanoan F.) , near El Paso de Texas. 

Tehuecos (Piman F.), Sinai oa, dial, of Cahita. 

Tejanos, same as Coahuiltecan, Texanos. 

Tektikilhatis (Totonacan F. ) , Veracruz. 

Tenimes (Zoquean F.),Puebla; see Yopes. 

Teotenancas, first Chichimecs in valley of Mexico. 

Tepanecos, third Nahuan tribe to arrive in Mexico and one of three confederated 
tribes at time of conquest; capital, Tlatopan. 

Tepeguana (Piman F.) , Durango, Buschman's Aztec-Sonora. 

Tepozcolula (Zapotecan F.J , Oaxaca, dialect of Mixtec. 

Tequis (Piman F.), Division of Opata. 

Tequistlatecan family, in Oaxaca, see Chontal, Triquis. 

Texanos (Coahuiltecan F.) , Texas and N. E. Mex., family name. 

Texones (Coahuiltecan F.), Tamaul, "raccoons," also Tejones, dialect of Pakawa 
(Gatschet) , ' ' tattooed, ' ' same as Coahuiltecan. 

Tewan, see Tafioan family. 

Tezcucos (Nahutlan F.), Mex., see Acolhuas, fourth Nahuatlan tribe to arrive in 
Anahuac. 

Tlacopdn, now Tacuba, suburb of the City of Mexico. 

Tlahuicos (Nahuatlan F.), one of seven original Mexican tribes. 

Tlapanec (Zapotecan F.), Guerrero (dialect of Mixe, according to Brinton). 

Tlascalans (Nahuatlan F.) , sixth in order of seven orig. Mex. tribes. 

Tlatluicans (Nahuatlan F.) , fifth Nahuatlan tribe in Anahuac. 

Toltecas, people of Tula, on Toltecs, Brinton, '94:129; Thomas, '99:235. 

Tontos (Yuman F.), Sonora, now in Arizona. 

Totonacos (Totonacan F.) , Veracruz, first natives seen by Cortes. 

Triquis (Zapotecan F.) , according to Belmar; Tequistlatecan F., Brinton, Oax. 

Tzentals (Mayan F.) , Tobasco and Chiapas, many spellings. 

Tzotzils (Mayan F.) , Chiapas, dialect of Quelene. 

Uchitas (Yuman F.) , branch of Waikuru. 

Varogios (Piman F.), Chih., br. of Taruhamara. 

Vebetlateca (Mayan F.), Chiapas, the orthography of Don Palacio, xvi. century. 

Xicalancas, preceded Toltecs in valley of Mexico. Valentin! thought they were 
Mayas. 



MEXICO. 31 

Xicayan (Zapotecan F. ) , Guerrero and Puebla. 
Xiximes (Nahuatlan F.) , classed with Acaxees. 
Yaquis (Nahuatlan F.) , R. Yaqui, Sonora. 
Yavapais (Yuman F.) , eight bands, various spelling. 
Yopes (Zoquean F.), Puebla, dialect of Mixe (Brinton). 
Zapotecos (Zapotecan F.), Oaxaca, many tribes. 
Zoquean family, Tabasco, Chiapas, Oaxaca. 
Zuaques (Piman) , Sinaloa, branch of Cahita. 

These tribes and their ancestors developed their civilization as best 
they could under the skies and with the natural resources of the 
country. 

In the matter of food, which is the most important consideration of 
all, the southern Mexicans were happily situated. Since the grade of 
a people's culture is measured by the amount and variety of artificiality 
in their daily lives, agriculture is a higher art than fishing or hunting 
or herding. How fortunate, then, were the Mexicans of old in that 
their attention was not distracted by the presence of large herds of buf- 
falo or immense schools of fishes. There was in their dietary enough 
of meat and of fish, but they had the most economic grain in the 
world — maize — in some places yielding three crops a year. Besides, 
Mexican soil is congenial to all sorts of pulse, most nitrogenous of 
plant foods; to cacao; to the banana, most economic of fruits, and to a 
variety of vegetal productions not known in the temperate zone. 
There were no plows or agricultural machinery; but there was 
abundance of water supply and ample means of utilizing it through 
irrigation canals. Could the ancient regime be restored, an interest- 
ing picture would be afforded of premanganic or premechanical thrift. 
There were farmers in those days such as one might see in busy Japan 
fifty years ago or yet in many parts of China, where teeming popula- 
tions are daily fed on ample though not varied fare, the product of 
human hands alone. The miller — generally the woman — ground the 
maize on a metate, or slab of lava, with a muller, rather than with a 
pestle, and cooked her cakes and bread on griddles and in the hot 
ashes, not differently from the ways of our own ancestors a few gener- 
ations removed. It was the acme, the apotheosis of the hand epoch, 
where there were fewer comforts, perhaps, but less misery. (Bancroft, 
1875, ii, 242-562.) The serving of food was, like all other activities, 
conditioned on the social organization. Failing to recognize this, 
authors have read the most refined aristology into the rude but hearty 
feasting of the Mexican rulers in ante-Columbian times. For a gor- 
geous account of Montezuma's dinner the reader may consult Bancroft 
(1875, ii, 174-178), and as an antidote to this, Morgan (1881, 237- 
248), the truth doubtless lying somewhere between. 

The next anxiety of a people after appeasing hunger is to clothe 
the body artificially against heat and cold, against rain and drought, 
and against damage from without. The ancient Mexicans wore sandals, 



32 MEXICO. 

which, because they had no rawhide for the soles, were woven or 
plaited ingeniously from vegetable fibers and fastened to the feet dif- 
ferently from the Egyptian type now worn. On the feet of gods 
and of great persons the sandals are highly decorated. The limbs 
were bare. Men wore the breech clout and women short kilts or petti- 
coats. The upper part of the body was protected by means of a shawl 
or robe fastened on the left shoulder, leaving the right hand free. 
Sleeved garments were not known. The head ordinarily was bare. 
In the wilder tribes men and women dressed scantily in garments 
made of skins. The more advanced tribes substituted clothing of 
bark cloth, like the Hawaiian tapa, of nequen fiber, and of cotton. 
Among the most cultured tribes barbaric splendor was the rule in dress. 
Every part of the body was decked with jewehy, feather work, and 
embroidery. Of the priests and persons in authority, as one may see 
from the codices and sculptures, it may be truly said that Solomon 
in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. (Bancroft, 1875, 
363-377.) 

After clothing comes the habitation. Indeed, a house is a suit of 
clothing or costume for a family, a clan, a royal establishment, a reli- 
gious sect. Morgan (1881) holds that the great stone structures of 
Mexico now in ruins were cotamunal houses, built on the models 
of those belonging to Indian tribes farther north. In this he is com- 
bated by those who look at them after studying the religious edifices of 
the Orient. No doubt these imposing remains are only a small frag- 
ment of what they stand for. As a stone arrowhead picked up on 
some field was once united to shaft and foreshaft and feathering, and 
was painted with significant markings, so these stone remains are only 
insignificant relics of their former selves. Wooden buildings with 
thatched roofs and with sides plaited into diaper patterns, painted 
screens, gardens, furniture, and household utensils are all gone. The 
ancient people lived doubtless very much as the native Mexicans do 
in our da.j. Making allowance for intrusions by way of Spain from 
North Africa and Eg3^pt, and by way of Manila from the Orient, one 
may be helped greatly in restoring the former times by a study 
of modern buildings, not forgetting that the clan or gentile system of 
living prevailed in Mexico as in all other parts of America. 

The tools of the ancient stone workers were chiefly of stone. If 
there were any mason's tools of metal, they were inconsiderable. The 
Mexican lapidaries could chip, saw, bore, and polish obsidian, nephrite, 
and other gem stones, and inlay. They were also fond of and skillful 
in mosaic work, effected b}^ carving masks and other objects in wood 
or shell, covering the surface with gum and overlaying with scraps of 
green and other colored stones. (Oppel, 1896, 4.) Excellent examples 
of this work have been dug from ancient pueblos in Arizona. (Fewkes, 
1898, pi. 35.) The ancient Mexican stone masons used the pick, the 



MEXICO. 33 

bushing hammer, and the abrader, all of stone. They also employed 
wood for skids, levers, wedges, handles to stone tools, and for burning 
lime. To these primitive utensils must be added that manual dexter- 
ity which comes only through generations of practice and emulation. 
The tools of fellow-craftsmen were of the same primitive character, 
and yet with these they also produced astonishing results in wood, 
shell, gold, silver, and copper. 

The Mexican engineer had no helpful beasts of burden, hence his 
countrymen became famous in the use of their backs, an art not yet 
passed away. He had the best of ropes, the inclined plane, the lever, 
the wedge, the parbuckle, and a primitive tackle without pulleys. In 
certain erections a false core was built up to sustain the masonry, and 
removed when all was finished. As for his line, plummet, foot-rule, 
square, and numerical standards, nothing is known; only, if his 
metric system resembled his calendar, he used a decimal scale. 

Among metrical appliances, time measures afford an excellent gauge 
of a people's progress — to mark definite portions of time, as with 
the sandglass; to tell the time of day, to note the proper day, furnish 
materials for the chronograph, the chronometer, and the chronologist. 

The more savage tribes of Mexico marked the length of an interval 
by the fading of leaves set up in the path and the width of the angle 
traversed by a shadow. Time of day was not registered artificially 
among the wilder tribes, but in the more cultured there were devices 
that operated on the principle of the dial. But the calendar of the 
Nahuatlan, Zapotecan, Totonacan, and Mayan families was quite up to 
that of the conquerors. The year consisted of three hundred and 
sixty-five days, in two parts; three hundred and sixty days, divided 
into eighteen months of twenty days each, and five intercalary days. 
Each day of the month had a proper name and a graphic symbol. 
The interpretation of these symbols has taxed the ingenuity of Mexi- • 
cologists from the beginning. (Thomas, 1898; Seler, 1888). 

In this connection, for rating the culture status of the Mexicans 
must not be overlooked the harnessing of nature's forces for work. 
The Mexicans, originally, did not use the wind for power unless it 
it may have been to waft the rudest kind of craft and to winnow their 
harvests. But water was dammed up for agriculture and for fish 
ponds, floating gardens were known, canals were dug for irrigation 
and transportation, and, most wonderful of all, in Yucatan were 
innumerable water caves. The soft, porous limestone, broken up by 
earthquakes, acted like a sieve for the surface waters, which dissolved 
for themselves subterranean channels. There are no surface springs, 
but the roofs of the underground streams, breaking in, formed cistern- 
like pits, with abundance of water at the bottom. These are approached 
by trails and ladders, and they have been improved artificially. (Holmes, 
1895; Mercer, 1897; Thompson, 1897.) 
651a 3 



34 MEXICO. 

The woodman was not in evidence to such degtree as he became on 
the north Pacific coast, but all tribes knew the plant world well and 
within the limits of the K.eY)ublic there was a great variety of economic 
species for aliment, drink and medicines, for woods, for fiber. Tim- 
ber was cut down with stone axes, split with wooden wedges, held 
together with wooden pegs and lashings. It was shaped roughly with 
adzes, and there was no lack of tools for creditable wood carving, as 
the architectural features of that substance bears witness, but drums 
and furniture were also skillfully carved. The reed lent itself handily 
to a thousand clever arts. 

The textile art was well advanced in Mexico. Its coarsest products 
were the roofs of the dwellings, their ornamental walls and screens, 
and fences. Next came matting of reeds, j^ucca, and palm strips. By 
varjdng the plant, the dye, and the pattern, the most pleasing effects 
were brought about. Articles of dress and utensils of housekeeping 
without number were plaited from abundant and varied material. 
Basketr}^, through failure of tough roots and other material, was not 
equal to that farther north; but in place of it skillful fingers reveled 
in feather work, for which nature furnished with lavish hand not only 
abundant fiber for network, but plumage birds without stint for the 
gaud}^ covering. 

The Mexican women could spin both with the fingers without 
mechanical help and by means of spindles, upon the manufacture of 
which much artistic skill was bestowed. They wove just as the Pima 
women of Arizona, their kindred, do even to this day, namely, sitting 
on the ground with warp almost horizontal, one end of it fastened to 
a stationary object, the other to a belt around their waists. By sway- 
ing their bodies they governed the tension. They could do plain weav- 
ing, in which the weft of different colors passes back and forth; they 
could manage diaper effects by counting warp threads at each excursion 
of the rude shuttle, or they could produce gobelin effects by weaving in 
the patterns separately. On the surface of these textiles lace work was 
effected also skillfully. It is an open question, however, whether the 
beautiful modern drawn work was of native development or imported 
from Manila in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Tailoring, 
also, in the modern sense was unknown, garments being made out of 
the whole piece. 

The question whether Mexican aboriginal culture is original or 
derived has been hotly debated by those who should have known that 
it is both. The problem of native culture is like those of the geologist 
and the chemist. In order to ascribe a phenomenon to certain layers 
or substances, these first exclude foreign intrusions. In the same way 
those arts which were developed on the soil of Mexico will be more 
clearly understood by the elimination of intrusions. From the crown 
of his head to the sole of his foot — literally, from headdress to sandal — 



MEXICO. 35 

the modern Mexican is Hispano-Egyptian through northern Africa, 
with an overlapx)ing of the Orient through three hundred years of con- 
tact with the Philippines. 

There was no potter's wheel, all vessels were being built up by the 
well-known processes of coiling, modeling, molding, and malleating 
or beating into shape with paddles. The art of covering with slip, 
painting, adding ornaments, and burning were well understood, but 
glazed potterj^ in ancient Mexico was not known. In the South the 
ware was far more refined in quality and ornament, that of the central 
region being overloaded with modeled work. Indeed, in the ware of 
to-day a school of potters, instead of modeling as the sculptor does, 
molds the parts of an intricate piece and then lutes them together. 
Among ceramic treasures are to be noted the musical instruments. 

Gold, silver, copper, and perhaps tin were known to the cultured 
provinces. These metals are still found in the Republic abundantly, 
but to reconstruct the workshops of the goldsmith or the silversmith 
is no easy task. Astonishing effects may be produced in these metals, 
cold or in open fire, in the hands of clever workmen. Those who on 
a priori ground assert the knowledge of the blowpipe, the bellows, or 
the knowledge of fluxes do not remember how extremel}^ handy many 
peoples are without them. Literature concerning the metallurgists, 
their shops, their tools, their processes, and their handiwork, is most 
meager. (Penafiel, 1890.) 

In commerce and transportation the apotheosis of human backs and 
limbs was to be seen in Mexico of old, and in this day they compete 
successfully against beasts of burden and the iron horse. Mothers 
bore their children in their garments, the climate being too hot for the 
cradle board of the North. Passengers were carried on human backs 
in frames. Loads were packed and held in place both with headbands 
and breastbands. The commonest picture in some of th3 paintings is 
of the burden bearer, and the artist has not despised the carrying strap 
as a ground for pleasing designs. Runners were common, and relays, 
so that messages and perishable goods could be delivered quickly. 
The Mexicans were not skilled on the water. In their almost harborless 
and riverless country necessity for elaborate water craft did not exist. 
What little flotation was demanded rafts of reed and logs and dugout 
canoes supplied. In the more thriving States organized transportation, 
centers of distribution, and standards of value were established, but 
the nearest approach to money was in the shape of cacao beans, quills 
filled with gold dust, and small sheets of copper stamped with simple 
design. (Bancroft, 1875, 378-399.) 

For the communication and record of ideas the tribes of Mexico 
exhibit an interesting progression. The Sonoran branch of the 
Nahuatlan family were in this regard Indians pure and simple, with 
their spoken dialects, gesture speech, telephonic messages, painted 



36 



MEXICO. 



robes, rock curvings, and symbolism. But the Southern families were 
far beyond that. They had not, forsooth, spelling books and printing 
presses, l)ut they had gotten as far along as the rudest hieroglyphs of 
Egypt and Mesopotamia; certainly were as skillful as the Chinese. 
They had books much like those of eastern Asia, written on parch- 
ment or native paper in narrow pages and folded like a Japanese 
screen, and they engraved their thoughts on stone. The literature of 
the cultured Mexican tribes — that is, the artistic writing — has nearly 
all perished, but there was a professional class of scribes, and after the 
conquest they copied for their rulers many old documents and prepared 
new ones, some of which remain unto this day. To the decipherment 
of these and of the intricate calendar system able scholarship has been 
devoted, and there is room here merely to refer to their researches. 
(Bancroft, 1875, ii, 508.) Seler says "The supposed differences between 
Aztec hieroglyphics and Maya manuscripts do not exist." (Proc. Roy. 
Geog. Soc. in Science, 1889, xiii, 295.) 

Among these preserved picture writings are a number of sufficient 
importance to have absorbed the attention of eminent and enthusiastic 
scholars. They are called "codices," and they have been named from 
their discoverers, from their present locations, and from some histori- 
cal fact connected with them (Bancroft, 1875, ii, 529; 1876, v, 192.) 
The word codex, or codice, is somewhat confusing in this connection, 
being made to cover also old documents in the Spanish language as 
well as paintings relating solely to the conquest. Since the appear- 
ance of Lord Kingsborough's work and others mentioned by Bancroft 
the Mexican Geographic Society, Due de Loubat, Thomas, and others 
have given to the world entire codices or parts in excellent form. 
Governments and institations have liberally aided. Besides, the codices 
were mural inscriptions, calculiform characters on altars, monoliths, 
cartouches on ornaments, paintings on pottery, and glyphs on hard 
wood (Starr). 

The list of efforts at their decipherment would transcend the lunit 
of this publication. The names of most of them will be associated 
with the works of Brinton, Rau, Seler, Forsteman, Maudslay, Gunckel, 
Thomas, Saville, Goodman, etc. 

Mexican and Maya codices, their locations and publishers. 



Names. 


Location. 


Published in— 




Royal Library 


Kingsborough, ii. 




Museo Nacional de Mexico 

Facsimile in Bodleian Library, 
Oxiord. 

Library of Scientific Institute 

Palais Bourbon, I'aris 


Chavero,1892. 




Kingsborough, i, ii. 




Kingsborough, ii; Due de Loubat. 




Due de Loubat. 




College of the Propaganda, Rome . 
Boturini Collection 


Kingsborough, iii, 66; Due de Lou- 




bat. 
Kingsborough, i. 




San Juan de Cuauhtlantzinco, 

Pueblo. 
Museo Nacional de Mexico 


Starr, 1898. 




Antigiiedades Mexicanas. 


Cospianus 


Due de Loubat. 



MEXICO. 

Mexican and Maya codices, their locations and j)ublis]iers — Continued. 



37 



Names. 


Location. 


Published in— 




Royal Museum, Madrid 


Madrid. 


Dehesa 


Museo Nacional de Mexico 

Vatican Library 


Antiguedades Mexicanas. 


Del Rios (3738) 


Due de Loubat. 




Royal Library, Dresden 


Kingsborough, iii: Forstemann, 


Fej ervary 


Possession of M. F., Hungary 


1880. 
Kingsborough, iii. 




Peiiaflel. 


Lienzo de Tlaxcala 


Museo Nacional de Mexico 

Bodleian Library, Oxford 


Antiguedades Mexicanas. 




Kingsborough, i, v, vi. 




National Library, Paris 


Archives Paleographiques, Paris, 


(Mayan). 


Museo Nacional de MiSxico 


1869, i. 
Antiguedades Mexicanas. 








National Library, Paris . . . 


Kingsborough, i, v, vi; Due de 




Museo Nacional de Mexico 

Madrid 


Loubat. 
Antigiiedades Mexicanas. 


Troano (Mayan) 


Brasseur, 1869; Thomas, 1882. 










Louaat. 









The social organization of the aboriginals in Mexico is one of the 
most excellent fields of research on account of the perspective which 
it presents. Here, in this limited area, which one may traverse in a 
summer vacation, are to be seen every grade and variety of the gentile 
S3^stem. On one extreme is the well-known mother rule, where 
descent is in the female line and there is little of private property or 
privilege; on the other is the picture of a great military confederacy 
of tribes, wherein father-right prevailed, where officers were elective, 
and a council of delegates from each tribe was charged with all affairs 
of state. Into this truly American social order it was easy for the 
early Spanish authors to read their own system and to use such terms 
as king, prince, general, and so on, but to the careful student the 
organization and functioning of society are explicable through a wider 
study of various peoples on the Western Hemisphere. Besides, there 
were, as has been pointed out, several linguistic families in Mexico, 
who were as wide apart as Aryans and Magyars in Austria-Hungary ; 
but even these had their agreements and treaties according to the plan 
of democracies. (Bandelier, 1880, with rich addition of footnotes.) 
Confirmatory of the thoroughly American gentile system of govern- 
ment and social order in Mexico are the facts relating to the holding 
of real estate. It is not necessary to appeal to the tribes north of the 
Tropic of Cancer; in the more highly cultured tribes, as Bandelier 
shows with great erudition (1878), no man owned any real estate, no 
office owned land, all government land was independent of the rulers, 
conquest was never followed by partition of land, the notion of owner- 
ship in fee, of sale, barter, conveyance, or alienation was undreamed of. 

The Southern Confederacies had not literally beaten their swords 
into plowshares, but they had converted the hunting implements, 
weapons, and devices, with many improvements, into the apparatus of 
war. 



38 MEXICO. 

The organization of the army was not different essentially from that 
of their civil government. As in the Old World so in the New, there 
were storm centers where clouds of war met and spent their invy. 
The valley of Mexico was one of these; hence the Nahuatlan tribes 
attained the highest point of military discipline of the New World. 
But their weapons were only bows and arrows, darts, throwing sticks 
(atlatl), javelins, and spears, for piercing; slings and clubs for striking, 
and the most murderous club, lined on either side with spalls of vol- 
canic glass, for slashing. For defense they had shields, cotton armor, 
and wooden helmets, like those of the Thlinkit warriors in recent 
times. As is customary among the northern Indians, the Mexican 
soldiers decked their militar}^ equipments with gorgeous f eatherwork. 

The organization of the army, the tactics, the strategy, the military 
engineering, the fortified places of the more civilized tribes, doubtless 
were of a higher order than the guerrilla methods of the United States 
tribes of two hundred years ago. On the other hand, they err who 
would read into these the vocabulary of European war methods of the 
times. Bandelier says (1877, 161) : " The Mexicans were not subject to 
a despotical power, but organized after the principles of a barbarous 
but free military democracy. " 

In the comparative sense, religion consists in what men think of a 
spirit world and what they do in consequence; the former is their 
creed, the latter their cult or worship. Creed has to do chiefly with 
the personnel and physiography of the spirit world, and it will be noted 
that in some measure that world is the reflection of this. Its super- 
nal beings are organized as a society, and their motives as well as their 
conduct have reference to human beings. 

In cult, human society is organized, buildings are erected, costumes 
are worn, food is eaten, days are observed, and certain austerities 
practiced, aU with reference to beings unseen to mortal ejes, but cog- 
nizable by a special sense. The most refined art and music and the 
best of everything go to the gods. 

On this definition the Mexican religion had its creed and its cult, 
its heaven and its pantheon, as well as its temples, altars, and priest- 
hood; its mythology and worship. 

The northern or pueblo tribes of Mexico must be studied in the light 
of the pueblo tribes of Arizona, worked out by members of the Bureau 
of American Ethnology. Its wild tribes lived near to their unseen 
world like their brethern of the north. We are here concerned with 
the religion of the southern families. Bancroft (1875, iii) devotes five 
hundred pages to the religion of the Pacific coast tribes; the larger 
part is given to the topic here considered. On every monument, 
sculptured slab, decorated wall or vase, the spirit world is manifested. 
It is a Mexican Pantheon. The warrior god is supreme; the priests are 
ministers in a church militant. Sacrifice, incense, pomp in worship, 



MEXICO. 39 

revolting rites, prolonged rituals, obtrude themselves and override 
industry and art. 

The aesthetic side of Mexican life in aboriginal times covered a wide 
area, but nowhere reached an enlightened stage. There were public 
fetes and games, but there was no drama per se. There were social 
rules or fine art of behavior — in the open, in the family, at the feast, 
every one had a place; but behavior where there was so little furni- 
ture scarcely rose to etiquette. There was fine art of dress and its 
accessories, but not far above that of the Mandan Indians. Vocal 
music was singing in unison, and there are those who say that the 
Mexicans had a scale of notes which can be reproduced on an organ 
with fixed pipes, but this is denied. The musical instruments of the 
Mexicans were flageolets and flutes of wood, bone, and pottery. 
Whistles of grotesque shapes, reed instruments of unique form, drums 
of wood (teponaztli), and with heads of membrane (huehuetl), rattles 
(ajacaxtli), and bells (yotl), but the existence of stringed instruments 
is doubtful. In some of the sculptures students see riepresentations 
of this class, but others as clearly witness the notched rattle. (Seler, 
1898.) 

As for the graphic and glyphic art, sculpture, and architecture, 
the student can not fail to note everywhere the sense of the beau- 
tiful struggling to help symbolism and to disengage itself from its 
more childish forms. Unity, proportion, symmetry are all there, 
and some of the world's standard forms have been reached. One 
well qualified to judge has said; "Most of the motives employed in 
embellishment have their origin in religion; their use was first signif- 
icant and second aesthetic * * * All the sculptor's art is crude 
as compared with civilized art, but it is virile and full of promise of 
higher achievement. * * * There is lack of perspective and a 
mixing- up of sizes, and the general style of presentation is suggestive 
of that of the ancient Egyptians." (Holmes, 1895, 52.) 

No other part of the Western Hemisphere has such abundance and 
variety of attractions for the archaeologist as the territory of the 
Republic of Mexico. In order to comprehend this area one must study 
the pyramidal mounds of the Mississippi Valley; the immense log 
buildings, sculptures, and totem posts of the north Pacific coast; the 
massive walls and composite arrangement of the pueblos; the infinite 
variety of geometric patterns and designs on basketry; not neglect- 
ing, finally, the full-costumed Crow warrior of Montana, wearing 
his decorated breech clout and moccasins, and gorgeous headdress of 
eagle plumes, which spans his head like a huge rainbow and descends 
to the ground in a long train. It is not necessar}^ to maintain that the 
sculptors of southern Mexico were the immediate blood kindred and 
colinguists of all these widely scattered tribes. Only they use the 
same alphabet and art motives. The Mexicans were mound-builders, 



40 MEXICO. 

totem carvers, pueblo designers, fretwork weavers, and costuraers in 
stone, the material which, more than all others combined, evoked the 
virile qualities of early races. 

Regarding the antiquities of Mexico, the present territory may be 
further subdivided into (1) The Mayan province, east from Tehuan- 
tepec, including Yucatan, belonging, perhaps, to Central America; 
(2) the Nahuan-Zapotecan province, reaching from Quemada, in Zaca- 
tecas, southward to Tehuantepec, revealing an advanced and some- 
what mixed culture; (3) the Pueblo province, with its compound, 
storied houses and smooth, coiled pottery, which is not bounded 
northward by the boundary line, but reaches far into the United 
States; (4) the wild province, home of cliff dwellers and devoid of 
architecture and pottery. The antiquities of Mexico do not end with 
the boundaries of the Republic. At the north, the Casas Grandes, in 
western Chihuahua, on Casas Grandes River, is an immense adobe 
structure, allying itself with the present and ancient pueblos of Ari- 
zona and New Mexico. Moreover, there were throughout the same 
region and southward natural and artificial cave dwellings. (Lumholtz, 
1898.) At the southeast, Mexico passes insensibly from the Mayan 
culture of Yucatan and Chiapas into the antiquities of Guatemala. 

The mural remains of the Republic are comprised within narrow 
limits, extending from the sixteenth to the twenty -second parallel, 
from Soconusco to Quemada. Yet in this contracted ar«a are to be 
found more structures of stone than in all America besides. 

Of this architecture there are held to have been several schools. 
Indeed, this should be looked for, since, in addition to the natural gates 
or opportunities opened by the several environments, there were on 
this territory, in rivalry, several linguistic families. In Yucatan and 
Tabasco was the Mayan family, with an outlying branch in northern 
Veracruz. Next to them, westward, were the Zapotecan and the Zo- 
quean family, and in a circle about the City of Mexico were Nahuatlan, 
Totonacan, Otomian, and Tarascan tribes. (Brinton, 1891, 128-162.) 

Every variety of material enters into the permanent building, to wit, 
the plain dirt heap, the modeled dirt heap or mass; even mountains 
were remodeled; sun-dried clay, either as bricks or in larger masses; 
stone and clay or other bonding material, mixed in rubble, used in vast 
quantities; walls faced with uncut stone, which in some localities was 
supplied by nature in good form; cut stone in walls laid up without 
adhesive material; stone walls laid in clay, mortar, and cement; carved 
architectural features; relief carvings; sculptures in the round. As 
for the adhesive substances, besides clay and other natural cements, 
lime mortar has been mentioned and the possibility of its existence 
denied, but caustic lime was not beyond the Mexican builders, since 
burnt shells occur universally as a degraissant in American pottery. 
There was no lack of durable wood to serve as lintels to doors and to 



MEXICO. 41 

support ceilings. This material, doubtless, was used for doors, parti- 
tions, screens, and interior decorations, and was cut, hewn, and carved 
with great skill. (Holmes, 1895, 25.) 

The architecture was oversolid, and consisted of rough masses of dirt 
and rude masonry, faced with smoothed cut stone. Layard encountered 
just this combination in excavating Nineveh. A recent investigator 
calls attention to the lack of the best elements of construction. (Holmes, 
1895,27-30.) The arch and the dome were unknown. Long pen- 
tagonal openings, with horizontal bases, called false arches, were the 
best that the architects could do. On this overmassive structure there 
was an equally barbaric excess of decoration — false fronts, roof combs, 
cornices, mosaic and stucco work. One imposing feature is the ter- 
race and .stairway presented in endless variety, affording not only 
access to superior structures, but sitting room or grand stand for the 
laity. 

The two central features about which all plazas, paved ways, banks 
of earth, and walls or parapets cluster are the pyramid and the squared 
structure, the mound and the log house made in stone. Of the former, 
the function is largely outside; of the latter, owing to the solidity of 
the walls, it is only partly inside. The pyramid may have additions 
interior and inferior, but its attractive parts are exterior and superior. 
The built-up and squared structure lends all its parts, indeed, to the 
architect, the modeler, and the sculptor, but it also was to be gazed at 
from without. The pyramid was divided into stories by placing a 
series of truncated pyramids one above another and by cutting out 
terraces from a single form. 

In the most important remains there is such evident relationship 
between structure and structure as to prove that one purpose runs 
through the whole. And while some great buildings give evidence of 
accretions, others, says Holmes (1895, 23), for example, the palace at 
Uxmal and the castillo at Chichen, show that when the building began 
the whole plan to the minutest detail had been thought out. Very few 
of the buildings are accurately oriented, as that term is commonly 
understood. Certainly the modern style of laying off cities in rectangles 
was as little known in Mexico as among the European contemporaries. 

Their purposes are easily harmonized with the environment, the kin- 
ship system, and the culture system of the peoples. Some of them are 
forts, to defend whatever was in them. Some of them were religious, 
with their court of the women, court of the laity, and the other socie- 
ties, court of the society and pathway of the priests to a kind of 
shrine or holy of holies. If only on some bright, sunny day the pageant 
could return, what a picturesque sight one of those temple structures 
would afford, having every terrace and stairway filled with gay cos- 
tumes, to which gold and silver and precious stones, the efflorescence of 
the fields, and the plumage of birds lent their willing service. 



42 MEXICO. 

For the first time the sites of archseological remains in Mexico are 
here codified in the alphabetic order of States. Such a provisional 
list will serve future investigators as a starting point for additions and 
corrections. A distinction should be made between relics and remains. 
The former are movable and personal, and can not always be relied on 
for locations, but remains are stationar}^ and are useful on the spot. 
They should be guarded with the greatest care both by the Govern- 
ment and b}^ public spirit against destruction or removal. 

ANCIENT REMAINS IN MEXICO. 

Aguascalientes: No remains reported. 

Baja California: Rock paintings and inscriptions. 

Campeche: Paved roads, or calzadas; terra cotta idols, etc. 

Chiapas: 

Palenque, ancient city of vast extent, Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1895; Maudslay, 
1897. 

Lorillard City, ruins resembling Palenque, Charnay, 1887. 

Ococingo, groups of ruins, sculptures, hieroglyphs. 
Chihuahua: Rio des Casas, adobe pueblos, Casas Grandes, Thomas, 1899. 
Coahuila: 

San Lorenzo, rock paintings, mummies, relics. 

San Martin, ruins and pottery. 
Colima: No remains reported. 

DURANGO : 

Bolson, rock paintings and carvings, mummies. 

La Brena, caves yielding relics; between Suchil Valley and Chalchihuites, 
Chichimec remains. 
Guanajuato: Only cave dwellings and relics. 
Guerrero: Foundations, remains of settlements. 
Uina, ruins and burial places. 
Tlapa, tombs called Teteles. 
Hidalgo: Tula, pyramid, sculptures, idols, relics, Charnay, 1887; Penafiel, 1890. 
Jalisco: Artificialized hills. 

L. Chapala, vestiges of ancient settlements and pottery, Starr, 1897. 
Mexico: 

Actopan, pottery relics, 
Ahuehuepa, statue bearing hieroglyphics. 

L. Chalco, causeways across the lake; traces of ancient city on Xico Island; 
sculptures on Misquique Island; sculptures at Xochimilco; carved cylindrical 
stones at Tlahuac; ancient town of Culhuacan; idols, heads, fallen pyramids 
at Tlalmanalco. 
Chapidtepec, carvings on cliffs. 
Malinalco, ancient wood carvings. 

Mexico City, or Tenochtitlan. In the city all temples, etc., have been razed; 
calendar stone, sacrificial stone, statue of Coatlicue, sculptures at Tlatelulco; 
ruins of fortified hill at Tenango, Peiiafiel, 1890; Holmes, 1897. 
Mecamecan, rock pyramid, carved. 
Navajas, obsidian mines. 
Ozumba, carved blocks of stone. 
Remedios, terraced, stone-faced hill. 
Tacuba, ruins, pyramids of sun-dried bricks. 



MBXIGO. 43 

Mexico — Continued. 

TezGuco, causeway at Chapingo; idols, pottery, relics at Contador; terraced hill 

and aqueduct at Tetzcutzinco (Reyes, 1888) ; stone wall in mortar at Huejutla; 

ruins of ancient city at Teotihuacan, immense pyramids and paved way, 

Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1897; Fenafiel, 1899. 
Otumba, ruins at Tulacingo and San Miguel. 
Xonacatepec, stone masks; carved circular stone. 
Yahualua, tombs, with stone images, northward. 
Tyupilco, buildings of thin blocks of stone. 
Zacualpan, stone masks and relics. 
Michoacan: Opals and other gems, and remains at Jiquilpdn; small mounds at 

Irimbo; rock carvings on Aniche Island; ancient capital of Tarascos at Zint- 

zuntzan, L. Patzcuaro, Leon, 1888-1890. 
Morelos: 

Xochicalco, terraced hill, paved roads, galleries, hill covered with masonry, sum- 
mit platform, fine sculptures, Penafiel, 1890, ch. viii. 
Cuernavaca, figures carved on bowlders; temple pyramid. 
Tepozllan, Saville, 1896; Seler, 1898. 
NuEVA Leon: No antiquities reported. 
A JAG a: 

Tehuantepec, pyramids with stairs, fortresses, ruins, underground tombs, pottery, 

Estrada, 1892. Euins of Quiengola, 1896. 
Magdalena, statue of Zapotec prophet, Wixepecocha. 
Petapa, caves with painted walls. 
Loallaga, mound and hieroglyphics. 
Chihuittan, ancient bridge. 
Guatulco, ruins of ancient city. 
Tlacolula, mound of earth. 
Quiyechapa, ruined fortress. 
Etla, underground tombs, images. 

Penoles, skull preserved by lime; pyramid at Tepantepec, tombs at Teotitlan. 
Quilapan, mounds everywhere. 
Monte Alhdn, fortified lioly place, subterranean chambers, pyramid, hieroglyphics, 

etc. Hohnes, 1897. 
Zachila, mounds, burnt bricks, walls, statues. Tombs of Xoxo (Saville, 1899) . 
Mitla, finest ruin in the State and one of the grandest in Mexico. Charnay, 1867; 

Penafiel, 1890; Holmes, 1897. 
Quietepec, hill covered with ruins, platforms, terrace walls, pyramid; at Tuxtepec 

mound 63 feet high. 
Hualmapam, sculptures in low relief, pottery, gold objects. 
Yanghiltan, sculptured human figures. 

PUEBLA : 

Tehuacan, ruins of stone structures. 

Chila, pyramid of hewn stone, cement covering, stairway. 

Tepiaca, sculptured head and slabs. 

Tepixe, storied pyramid, hewn stone, lime mortar. 

San Cristobal, storied pyramid, stairway, graded way. 

Cholula, storied pyramid, 1,440 feet square, 200 feet high. 

ChalcMcomula, storied pyramid with stairs. 

Quatulhquelchula, relief; ruins at San Pablo. 

QUERETAEO: 

Queretaro City, fortified hills, pyramids, works. 

Fueblita, stone walls, sculptures, mounds. 

lianas, forts, pyramids with stairs, burial mounds. 



44 MEXICO. 

QuEEETARo — Continued . 

ToluqvAlla, ancient city and fort. Reyes, 1881. 

San Juan, mound containing idols. 
San Luis Potosi: No remains reported. 
Sinaloa: Vestiges of ruins at Mazatlan. 
Sonoea: Ruins at Babiacori; grottos at Sohuaripa. 
Tamaulipas: 

Encarnaclon, stone idol. 

Oramelote Creek, mounds, dressed stone, images, pottery. 

Salt Lake, pyramidal mounds, stone faced, with steps. 

Zopila, mounds faced with stone, carved stones, pottery. 

Tampico, idols of basalt, carvings, pottery, 
Tlaxcala: 

Malinche, walls, pyramids, stone images. 

San Pablo, kneeling figure in stone. 

Natividad, terraced hill, ruins, standing stones, relics. 

Cacaxtlan, fort, ditches, underground ways. 

Tlaxcala, sculptures, pottery, stone bridges, brick parapets, obelisk at Pueblo de 
los Reyes, wall on frontier of State. 

Tizatlan, ruins, called Xicotencatl. 
Veeaceuz: 

Veracfi'uz City, ports, pyramids, foundations, graves, west of the city, in abun- 
dance. 

Sacrificios I, temple, sepulcher, relics. 

Caxapa, ruined city; colossal head. 

Orizaba, sculptured yokes, carvings, grotto. 

Jalapa, serpent carved in rock. 

Puente Nadonal, storied pyramid, with stairs. 

Cdrdoba, line of forts. 

Centla, terraced pyramid faced with hewn stone, forts. 

Huatusco, pyramid with broad stairway, forts. 

Mirador, baths and rock inscriptions. ' 

Zacuapdn, pyramid, plaza, terraced walls. 

Tlacotepec, forts and aqueduct. 

Co7isoquitla, fort, plastered pyramids, idols, relics. 

Calcahualco, forts, pyramids, columns. 

Misantla, pyramids of hewn stone pavements, ruins. 

Jalaneingo, walls of hewn stone, subterranean shrines. 

Papantla, terraced storied pyramid; other pyramids at Mapilca ranch. 

Tusapan, pyramid with stairs, building on ton. 

Metlaltoyuca, pyramids of hewn stone, pavements. 

Panuco, statues and relics. 

San Nicolas, ovenlike chamber, ruins. 
Yucatan: 

Uxmal, immense Maya ruins; also pyramids, sculptures, and statues near Uxmal, 
at Senuisacal, Muna, Sacbe, Nohcacab, Xcoch, Nohpat. Charnay, 1887; 
Holmes, 1895. 

Kabah, group of 16 structures, storied buildings, sculptures, arches; southeast 
from Kabah, ruins at Sanacte, Xampon, Chack, Sabacehe. 

Zayi and Labnd, Charnay, 1887; Thompson, 1897b. 

Kewich, Xkichmook, and Xul, ruined cities and paintings. Thompson, 1898. 

Tekax, ruins at Sacacal, Ticum, Santa Maria and Chacchob. 

Loltun, caves, underground water supply. Mercer, 1897; Thompson, 1897a. 

Akil and Mani, remains of cities. 



MEXICO. 45 

Yucatan — Continued. 

Chicken Itza, rained city and forts, sculptures; nearby ruins at Tinum, Espita, 
Xocen, Sitax, Coba. Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1895; Mandslay, 1897. 

Ticul, pyramidal mounds, ruins. Charnay, 1887. 

Mayapan, mounds, sculptures, remains of ancient Maya capital. 

MSrida, on ruins of ancient city of Tahoo. 

Ake, ruins of rude architecture. Charnay, 1887. 

JmmaZ, pyramids, sculptures. Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1895. 

BoloncMn, wells (cenotes) , sculptures. 

Labphak, grand Maya ruin. 

Iturbide, mound of ruins, ancient town, remains near Noyaxche, Macoba, Man- 
keesh, Jalal, Yakatzib, Becanchen. 

Tuloom, walled town. Holmes, 1895. 

Cozumel, buildings and cisterns. Holmes, 1895. Ruins also at Point Nisuc, mouth 
of Petampich River, Kancune Island, Mujeres Island. 

Cayo Ratones, Cape Catoche, Yalahao, Emal, Monte Cuyo, Rio Lagartos, Port 
Silan. 

Maxcanu, mounds with galleries, ruins, senotes (underground water supplies) . 
Owing to the geological formation there are no water courses on the surface. 
Zacatecas: 

Quemada. Immense ruins on mesa, roads, mounds, dressed stone, terraces, but 
no inscriptions or architectural decorations. At Quemada, coming southward, 
begin those monuments in stone that mark the virile culture of southern Mex- 
ico as against the feminal arts in clay farther north. 

In order to make this brief summary valuable as a guide to students 
in Mexican archseology and ethnology, a list of modern works is 
appended^ which have been printed since H. H. Bancroft's Native 
Races of the Pacific States (1874-76) and Justin Winsor's Narrative 
and Critical History of America (1889) appeared. For earlier author- 
ities the reader can not overlook Bandelier's footnotes and that won- 
derful result of patience and accuracy, Sabin's catalogue of works 
relating to America. In the text of this article the titles here given 
are referred to by dates, following the plan of Dr. C. S. Minot. 

igee Chapter XX for list. 



CHAPTER IV. 

GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTIONAL ORGANIZATION— ARMY 

AND NAVY. 

The Constitution now in force in Mexico, originally promulgated 
February 5, 18.57, and subsequently amended, declares that the Mexi- 
can Republic is established under the representative, democratic, and 
federal form of government, composed of States free and sovereign in 
everything relating to their internal administration, but united in one 
single federation in accordance with the principles set forth in said 
Constitution. The Supreme Government is divided into three coordi- 
nate branches, viz, Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. 

The legislative power of the nation is vested in a general Congress, 
consisting of two Chambers, the Deputies and the Senate. The Cham- 
ber of Deputies is composed of representatives of the nation elected 
every two j^ears by the Mexican citizens and in the proportion of one 
Deput}^ for every 40,000 inhabitants, or fraction over 20,000, the 
term of service being two years, an alternate member being elected 
for each Deputy. 

The requisite qualifications to be a Deputy are: To be a Mexican 
citizen in the full exercise of his rights, 25 years of age, a resident of 
the State or Territory where chosen, and not to belong to the eccle- 
siastical state. In 1897 there were 227 members in the Chamber of 
Deputies. 

The Senate consists of two Senators for each State and the Federal 
District, chosen in the same manner as Deputies, and subject to the 
same limitations as to citizenship, residence, and civil status, but the 
age limit is 30 years, and the term of service four, half the Senate 
being renewed every two years. 

Federal ofiiceholders receiving a salary are ineligible for election to 
either Chamber. 

The Congress has two ordinary sessions annually — the first, which 
may be extended thirty days, beginning on September 16 and ending 
on December 15, and the second may be prorogued for fifteen days, 
convening on the 1st of April and adjourning on the last day of May. 

During the recesses of Congress a permanent committee, with limited 
legislative functions, sits, composed of 29 members, 15 being Deputies 
46 



MEXICO. 47 

and 14 Senators, appointed by the respective Ciiambers on the eve of 
adjournment. The duties of this committee are: To ^ive assent to the 
calling out of the National Guard for use beyond the limits of their 
respective States and Territories; to call, on their own motion or at 
the instance of the President, extra sessions of either or both Cham- 
bers; to confirm certain Executive nominations; to administer the 
oath to the President and Justices of the Supreme Court; to report on 
all matters unacted on by the previous Congress, so that the next may 
have business to take up immediately upon convening. 

The Executive power is lodged in a single individual, known as the 
"President of the United Mexican States." 

The President is elected indirectly by electors chosen by the people. 
His term of office is four years, commencing on the 1st day of Decem- 
ber after election. By an amendment to the Constitution, under date 
of December 20, 1890, he may be reelected indefinitely. Temporary 
vacancies in the Presidency are filled by the person serving as Sec- 
retary of State, while in case of death or permanent disability a pro- 
visional President is elected by Congress, who discharges the office 
until one is elected by the people. 

Following are the qualifications requisite for President: 

(1) To be a native-born Mexican citizen, in the full exercise of his 
rights. 

(2) To be 35 years of age. 

(3) To not belong to any ecclesiastical order. 

(4) To be a resident of the country at the time of election. 

The President is assisted in the discharge of his duties by a Cabinet, 
consisting of seven Secretaries, heads of the Departments of Foreign 
Relations; Finance and Public Credit; Communications and Public 
Works; Promotion, Colonization, and Industry; Interior; Justice and 
Public Instruction; War and the Navy. 

Cabinet officers must be native-born Mexican citizens, and at least 
25 years of age. All Executive regulations, decrees, and orders must 
be countersigned by the head of the department to which they refer, 
otherwise they are inoperative. 

The salary of the President is $50,000 per annum, and of the Cabi- 
net officers $15,000. 

The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court of Justice and 
the district and circuit courts. There are three circuit and thirty -two 
district courts. The Supreme Court of Justice is composed of eleven 
"ministros," or justices, four alternate justices, an Attorney-Gen- 
eral, and a public prosecutor. Their term of office is six years, and 
they are elected by the people indirectly, in the same manner as Depu- 
ties and Senators. The qualifications required are to be learned in 
the law, in the judgment of the electors; to be at least 36 years of 
age, and to be Mexican citizens in the full exercise of their rights. 



48 MEXICO. 

V 

Federal courts have jurisdiction — ' ' 

(1) In all cases arising from the enforcement and application of Fed- 
eral laws, save when such application affects only private interests, in 
which case the ordinary courts of the States, Federal District, and 
Territories shall be competent to assume jurisdiction. 

(2) In admiralty cases. 

(3) In cases to which the Federation is a party. 

(4) In cases arising between two or more States. 

(5) In cases arising between a State and one or more citizens of 
another, or between two or more States. 

(6) In civil or criminal cases arising from treaties concluded with 
foreign powers. 

(7) In cases affecting diplomatic and consular agents. 

The Supreme Court of Justice has original jurisdiction in all cases 
arising beween two States, and in those wherein the Union is a party. 
This court must also settle all controversies arising among the Federal 
courts, between these and the State courts, or between the courts of 
two States. The Supreme Court is also the court of last resort in all 
other cases here mentioned. 

The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends also to all' cases grow- 
ing out of (1) laws or acts of any authority infringing 6n individual 
rights; (2) laws or acts of the Federal authority violating or limiting 
the sovereignty of the States; (3) laws or acts of the latter encroaching 
on the Federal authority. 

The salary of Supreme Court justices is $5,000 and of circuit and 
district judges $4,000 a year. 

As provided b}^ the Federal Constitution, the interior government 
of the States is republican, representative, and popular, and is divided 
into the same branches as the General Government. 

1. The legislative power in the large majority of the States is vested 
in a single representative body called a congress, the members of 
which are called deputies, and are in most States elected indirectly by 
the people, serving two years. 

2. The executive power is lodged in a governor, elected, almost 
without exception, by indirect vote of the people, and serving for four 
years. 

3. The judicial power in the greater number of States resides in a 
supreme court of justice and inferior courts and judges. 

The States are divided politically, as a rule, into districts governed 
by a jefe politico, or a prefect. The minor divisions are municipalities, 
the local authority being an ayuntamiento, corresponding to the town 
council in the United States of America. 

By the Federal Constitution the States are prohibited from — 
(1) Concluding any alliance, treaty, or league with another State or 
foreign powers, except the league which ma}^ be formed between 
frontier States for offensive or defensive warfare against savages. 



MEXICO. 49 

(2) Issuing letters of marque or reprisal. 

(3) Coining money, issuing paper money, stamps, or stamped paper. 

(4) Obstructing the transit of persons or goods crossing its territory. 
(6) Prohibiting or molesting, either directly or indirectly, the 

entrance or exit to or from its territory of national or foreign mer- 
chandise. 

(6) Obstructing the circulation or consumption of national or foreign 
goods by means of imports or taxes that may be exacted through local 
custom-houses, bj^ requiring the inspector of registration of packages, 
or by requiring the documentation to accompany the merchandise. 

(7) Decreeing or maintaining in force laws or fiscal decrees which 
may cause differences of taxes or requisites, by reason of the source of 
national or foreign merchandise, whether these differences be estab- 
lished in regard to a like production in that locality or on account of 
like production from different sources. 

Nor can they, without the consent of the Congress of the Union — 

(1) Establish tonnage or any other port dues, nor impose burdens 
or duties upon imports or exports. 

(2) Maintain at any time a standing army or ships of war. 

(3) Make war by themselves on any foreign power, save in cases of 
invasion or of danger so imminent as to admit of no delay, in which 
cases they must immediately report to the President of the Republic. 

It is the exclusive faculty of the federation to obstruct merchandise, 
imported or exported, or which passes in transit through the national 
territory, likewise to regulate at all times, and even to prohibit for 
reasons of policy and security, the circulation within the Republic of 
all merchandise from whatever source; but the said federation can not 
establish or decree in the District or Federal Territories the taxes and 
laws expressed as regard the States. 

Each State is bound to deliver, without delay, criminals from other 
States to the authority demanding them. 

The Federal District and the Territories are, as in the United States 
of America, under the control and jurisdiction of the Federal Govern- 
ment, although the local authorities are elected by the people, as are 
Deputies and Senators to the National Congress. The population 
necessary to entitle a Territory to statehood is 120,000 inhabitants 
at least. 

The Mexican Constitution recognizes that the rights of man are the 
foundation and the end of social institutions, and consequently every- 
one is bound to respect and give support to the guarantees granted by 
it; that the national sovereignty is essentially and originally vested in 
the people; that all public authority emanates from the people and has 
been instituted for the good of the people; that the people have, at 
any time, the inalienable right of altering or modifying the form of 
government; and exercises its sovereignty through the national and 
State governments as prescribed by the Federal Constitution and the 
65lA— 4 



50 MEXICO. 

constitutions of the several States, the latter constitutions in no case 
whatever being allowed to obstruct the provisions of the Federal 
compact. 

All persons born within the territory of the Republic are free, and 
slaves become free, and arc under the protection of the law upon enter- 
ing the country. Education is free, except as regards the exercise of 
certain professions regulated bj'- the laws. Freedom to exercise the 
liberal professions, freedom of thought and of the press, are guaran- 
teed, the latter with the restrictions imposed by the rights of others, 
peace and public moralit}^ The rights of petition and of peaceful 
organization are recognized. The right to own and carry arms for 
lawful self-defense and protection is also recognized, subject, however, 
to the restrictions of the law; also the right to freely enter, leave, and 
travel over the Republic and to change one's residence, without pass- 
port or an}^ similar document, subject, however, to the judicial or 
administrative authority in cases of criminal or civil responsibility. 

Titles of nobility, hereditary honors, and prerogatives are not rec- 
ognized, nor is the authority or judgment of special laws or privileged 
courts. Ex lyoiit facto laws and the conclusion of treaties for the extra- 
dition of political offenders, also such treaties or agreements as shall 
in any mianner alter the rights and guarantees accorded to men and 
citizens by the Constitution are expressl}^ prohibited, as well as the 
right of search without a warrant issued b}^ competent authority. 

Imprisonment for debt of a purely civil nature is abolished. Vio- 
lent measures in the support of individual rights are prohibited, as the 
administration of justice by the courts is done gratuitousl3^ Arrest, 
except for offenses meriting corporal punishment, is prohibited, as is 
also detention without trial for a longer period than three days, unless 
justified as prescribed by law. The authorities are empowered to 
punish severely any ill treatment inflicted upon prisoners, either at 
the time of arrest or while imprisoned, as well as any other abuses. 
The rights of the accused are guaranteed, the application of penalties 
other than those purely correctional being limited exclusively to the 
judv^ial authority. Mutilation, branding, whipping, clubbing, tor- 
ture, excessi V ^ fines, confiscation of property, and any other form of 
infamous punishment is prohibited. The death penalty is limited to 
the crimes of high treason during a foreign war, highway robbery, 
arson, parricide, willful murder, high military crimes, and piracy, 
as provided by law. 

The inviolability of correspondence circulating through the mails 
is recognized, the infractors being severely punished. Private property 
can not be occupied without the consent of its owner, except in cases 
of need for public service, an indemnification having been previously 
paid, as prescribed by law. The quartering of soldiers, in time of 



MEXICO. ■ 51 

peace, upon the property of individuals is forbidden, as well as in 
time of war, save under the regulations established by law. 

No civil or ecclesiastical corporations of any description are per- 
mitted to acquire or manage landed estates, with the exception of the 
buildings directly devoted to the service or objects of the institution, 
nor are religious institutions permitted to acquire landed estates or the 
capital invested thereon, except as prescribed by law. 

Monopolies of all descriptions, under pretext of industrial protection, 
are prohibited, excepting the Government monopolies of coinage and 
the postal service, and the limited privileges granted by law to pat- 
entees of any useful invention. 

The President, with the concurrence of his Cabinet and the approval 
of Congress, or, during its recess, the Congressional Permanent Com- 
mittee, may suspend all constitutional guarantees in case of invasion, 
grave internal disorder, or serious disturbance endangering the State, 
but only for a limited period and by means of general orders, such 
suspension, however, according to the law, not to affect individuals. 

Section II of the Constitution declares that Mexican citizens are 

(1) all persons born in the country, or abroad, of Mexican parents; 

(2) all foreigners naturalized under the laws of the federation; (3) all 
foreigners acquiring real estate in the Republic or begetting children 
by Mexican mothers, unless distinct claim of citizenship elsewhere is 
avowed in due legal form. It is the duty of every Mexican to defend 
the independence, territory, honor, rights, and interests of the country, 
and to contribute to the general expenses, both of the federation and 
of the State where he resides, as prescribed by law. 

According to the Constitution, the citizens of the Republic are those 
who, besides being Mexicans, are over 18 j^ears of age, if married, or 
21, if unmarried, and possess honest means of livelihood. Their pre- 
rogatives are, the right to vote in the popular elections; to be elected 
by vote to all the charges, posts, and commissions for which they are 
legally qualified; to organize for the purpose of treating of the polit- 
ical affairs of the country; to enter either the general army or the 
national guard, in order to defend the Republic and its institutions, 
and to exercise the right of petition in all matters. 

The duties of the Mexican citizen are, to be inscribed in the regis- 
ter of his municipality, stating the amount of property he holds, or 
the trade, profession, or industry he is engaged in; to enlist in the 
national guard; to vote in the elections of his district, and to faithfuU}'' 
discharge the duties pertaining to any post to which he may be elected 
in the Federation. 

Citizenship is forfeited, (1) through naturalization in a foreign 
country; (2) by serving, in an official capacity, the government of 
another countrv, or by accepting from a foreign government decora- 



52 MEXICO. 

tions, titles, or charges — other than literarj^, scientific, or humanita- 
rian — without previous consent of the Federal Congress. The law 
determines the cases and form entailing- the loss or suspension of the 
rights of citizenship and the manner of rehabilitation. 

Under date of May 28, 1886, a law was passed by the Mexican Gov- 
ernment governing aliens and their naturalization, which is, in sub- 
stance, as follows: 

Aliens enjoy in the Republic the civil rights belonging to Mexicans 
and the guarantees granted by section 1 of title 1 of the Constitution, 
without prejudice to the Government's right to expel a pernicious 
alien. 

For the acquisition of waste or public lands, real estate, and ships, 
aliens are not required to reside in the Republic, but they are subject 
to the restrictions imposed hj existing laws; in the understanding, 
nevertheless, that every lease of real estate to an alien for a period 
exceeding ten years shall be deemed a full conveyance. 

The Federal law alone can modify or abridge the civil rights enjoyed 
by aliens, in consequence of the principles of international reciprocity, 
and in order that the aliens may thereby be subject in the Republic to 
the same disqualifications as the laws of their own country impose on 
Mexicans residing there; hence the provisions of the civil code and of 
the code of civil procedure of the Federal District on this subject have 
a federal character, and shall be obligatory throughout the whole 
Union. 

Aliens may be domiciled in the Republic for all legal purposes with- 
out losing their nationality. The acquisition, change, or loss of 
domicile are governed by the laws of Mexico. 

When the suspension of individual guarantees is declared under the 
provisions of article 29 of the Constitution, aliens, as well as Mexi- 
cans, are subject to the provisions of the laws decreeing the suspen- 
sion, without prejudice to the stipulations of treaties. 

Aliens are bound to contribute to the public expenses m the manner 
prescribed by the laws, and to obey and respect the institutions, laws, 
and authority of the country, subjecting themselves to the judgments 
and decisions of the courts, and having no right to have recourse to 
other measures than those which the law grants to Mexicans. They 
may appeal to the diplomatic channel only in the case of denial of 
justice or intentional delay in its administration, after exhausting in 
vain the ordinary means created by the laws, and in the manner pre- 
scribed by international law. Aliens can not enjoy any of the political 
rights of Mexican citizens. Aliens are exempt from military service. 
Domiciled aliens are bound, however, to perform police service when 
the security of property or the maintenance of order in the locality in 
which they are residing is involved. 

Aliens taking part in the civil dissensions of the country may be 



MEXICO. 53 

expelled from its territory as pernicious aliens, and are subject to the 
laws of the Republic as to the offenses which they may commit against 
it, without prejudice to the regulations of their rights and obligations 
during a state of war, by international law and treaties. 

The laws ordering the registration of aliens are repealed. The Min- 
istry of Foreign Relations alone can issue certificates of an}'^ given 
nationality in favor of the person requesting them. These certificates 
constitute legal presumption of foreign citizenship, but do not exclude 
proof to the contrary. The final proof of any given nationality is made 
before the competent courts, and by the means prescribed by the laws 
and treaties. 

Aliens who have acquired real estate and who have had children 
born to them in Mexico, or who have held any public office are bound 
to declare within six months after the promulgation of this law, if they 
have not done so previouslj^, before the civil authorities of their place 
of residence, whether they wish to acquire Mexican citizenship or 
retain their own. In the former case they must immediately ask for 
their certificate of naturalization. If they fail to make the declara- 
tion in question they shall be considered Mexicans, except in those 
cases where there has been an official declaration to this end. 

Colonists in Mexico come under the provisions of this last article. 

The following are among the general provisions of the Constitution: 
In time of peace no military authority can exercise any other functions 
than those intimately connected with military discipline. The state 
and the church are independent of each other, it being the exclusive 
right of the Federal Executive to exercise, in the matter of religious 
worship and external discipline, the intervention prescribed by law. 
Marriage is a civil contract, which, like any other act of the civil 
state of individuals, falls under the exclusive jurisdiction of the civil 
officials and authorities, as prescribed by law and having only the 
force and validity that law accords it. The Constitution is inviolable. 

At the close of the protracted period of wars and revolutions which 
had distracted the Republic the Mexican army lacked, in general 
terms, the technical instruction and organization impossible to attain 
in the midst of active warfare. Since the establishment of peace 
the Government has taken two steps of prime importance toward the 
improvement of the army and navy of the countr}^ — one the complete 
reorganization of both branches of the service, and the other the 
reduction of the standing army. To this end the Militar}^ School, 
which has furnished many intelligent officers and engineers, has been 
reorganized, and academies have been founded. The old infantry 
armament has been replaced, at first by the Remington rifle and later 
by the Mauser; the most modern ordnance has been substituted for 
the obsolete artillery pieces; the national arms and powder factories 
have been equipped with the most improved machinery, and, in short, 



54 MEXICO. 

eveiything has been done to place the army of the Republic on a 
footing- with the general progress of the nation. 

Shortty after the restoration of the Republic, in 1867, the army 
consisted of 37,103 privates, officered by 11 major-generals, 73 
brigadier-generals, 1,0-11 colonels, lieutenant-colonels, and majors, 
and 2,335 commissioned officers. 

According to the report of President Diaz, in 1888, the army had 
16 major-generals, 84 brigadier-generals, 1,205 commissioned officers, 
2,566 noncommissioned officers, and 29,367 privates, or a total numer- 
ical strength of 33,238 men. The latest statistical data (1897) give 
the following figures for that year: 

Major-generals - - - 10 

Brigadier-generals - 62 

Commissioned oflBcers - - 1, 020 

Noncommissioned officers - - - 2, 415 

Privates -- --- 24,538- 

Total - 28,045 

It- is estimated that this reduction represents a saving to the Gov- 
ernment of over $3,000,000. 

"The Two Republics," of Mexico City, is authority for the statement 
that the Mexican Army at the present time consists of 8 major-gen- 
erals, 53 brigadier-generals, 944 commissioned officers, 2,481 noncom- 
missioned officers, and 27,247 privates. 

The Navy has not as yet progressed beyond the period of inception. 
According to a Mexican official publication^ it consists of a fleet com 
posed of the following ships: Democrata^ gunboat of the first class; 
hidependencia and Libertad^ both of the second class; Oaxaca^ trans- 
port ship; Donato Guerra and Veracrtiz^ light-house dispatches; 
Yucatan^ a corvette, and the cruiser Zaragoza^ a steel training ship. 
The gunboats are armed with breech and muzzle loading guns — five 
each — while their tonnage and horsepower are as follows : Democrcda^ 
450 tons and 600 horsepower; the two second-class boats, 425 tons and 
425 horsepower each, while the Zaragoza has a tonnage of 12,000 
tons and 1,300 horsepower. The latter vessel was built at Havre in 
1891, and made a trip around the world in 1896. Several gunboats 
are in process of construction, and a battle ship and a cruiser are 
projected. 

The personnel of the Navy ^ consists of 90 officers and 500 men. 

^Lista de los Buques de Guerra y Mercantes de la Marina Mexicana, etc., Mexico, 
1899. 
^ Mexico and the United States, Romero, p. 100. 



CHAPTER V. 

POLITICAL DIVISION— THE VALLEY OF MEXICO— FEDERAL 

DISTRICT. 

The territory of the United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexi- 
canos) is divided into 1 Federal District, 27 States, and 2 Territories, 
whose organization is almost identical with that of the American 
Union. The States, as before indicated, are free and sovereign in all 
matters pertaining to their internal administration, their government 
being vested in three heads, namely: State government, State legisla- 
ture, and State judicial power. 

The 27 States and 2 Territories, whose area, population, and capital 
cities are given on page 13, according to the classification used by 
the late Mr. Matias Romero in his work "Mexico and the United 
States," are the following: 

Wm^thern States^ hordering on the United States. — Tamaulipas, Nuevo 
Leon, Coahuila, Chihuahua, and Sonora. 

Southern States., hordering on Guatemala. — Yucatan, Campeche, 
Tabasco, and Chiapas. 

Atlantic State. — Veracruz. 

Pacific States. — Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacan, Colima, Jalisco, and 
Sinaloa. 

Qentral States. — rAguascalientes, Durango, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, 
Morfelos, Mexico, Puebla, Queretaro, Tlaxcala, San Luis Potosi, and 
Zacatecas. 

The two Territories are Tepic and Baja (Lower) California. 

Southwest of the picturesque and extensive Valley of Mexico lies 
the Federal District. This valley comprises an extensive plain, broken 
occasionally by isolated hills and surrounded by two large mountain 
chains. Several ranges cross the valley west and south, while on the 
east rises the great Sierra Nevada, formed by the majestic Popocate- 
petl and the Ixtacihuatl, the former rising 3,200 meters above the 
mean level of the valley and 5,452 meters above sea level and the 
latter 5,286 meters above the level of the sea. The northern boundary 
of the valley has not yet been defined. The area of the valley is given 
as 4,214 square kilometers, not including the 1,532 square kilometers 
of the Zumpanga valley, but both should be considered as forming 
one single valley, whose combined area is 5,746 square kilometers. 

55 



56 MEXICO. 

The waters of the valley form two distinct watersheds, one sloping 
in an easterly direction and the other toward the west, both embracing 
a number of small streams. Spurs of the lateral mountain ranges close 
the valley north and south, its center thus forming a basin where the 
waters of the two watersheds collect, forming five lakes, namely: Zum- 
pango, 2,284 meters above sea level; Xultocan and San Cristobal, in 
the north, 2,277 meters above sea level; Chalco and Xochimilco, in 
the south, 2,280 meters and 2,268 meters, respectively, above sea level, 
and Lake Texcoco, on whose western shore lies the city of Mexico. 
This last is the largest of all the lakes, being at the present day about 
30 square kilometers in extent, though in former times it covered a 
larger area. As it lies in the lowest point of the valley all the surplus 
water of the other lakes drain into it during the rainy season, thus 
causing frequent inundations in the capital, to prevent which a system 
of drainage has been established. 

The "Guia General Descriptiva de la Republica Mexicana,"^ from 
which the information in regard to the Federal District has been ob- 
tained, divides the work undertaken for the proper drainage of the 
valley of Mexico into four epochs. In the year 1M9, during the rule 
of Moctezuma, the first dams connecting Tenochtitlan (Mexico) with 
Tepeyac (Guadalupe) and Xochimilco were constructed. During the 
Colonial Empire (1553) a curved dam was built to replace those de- 
stroyed by Cortes during the war, others being built in 1604 and 1708. 
During the republican regime President Comonfort, in 1856, invited 
the competition of experts, both native and foreign, whose plans for 
the drainage works should fulfill certain conditions, among them being 
the stipulation that the waste waters be always used for irrigation 
purposes. Of the seven projects presented that of Engineer Francisco 
Garay was selected, and the work has lately been finished in accord- 
ance with his plans. The delay in the completion of the work was due 
to several disturbances in the country until, in 1885, President Diaz 
approved an appropriation of $400,000 a year for the continuance of 
the work until it should be finished, which was successfully effected 
in 1896 at a cost of $13,000,000. The work on the main canal, which 
necessitated the removal of 10,215,000 cubic meters of earth, kept 
3,000 men and 5 dredging machines constantly employed. During the 
the progress of the work upheavals of the soft bed of the canal occurred 
several times, thus rendering it necessary to commence the work anew. 
The canal starts at a point east of the city about on a level with Lake 
Texcoco, 1.30 meters below the mean level of Mexico, crosses the river 
Guadalupe by means of an aqueduct 50 centimeters above the mean 
level of the river, extends for a distance of 48 kilometers, penetrating 
deeper and deeper into the earth until it enters a tunnel 10 kilometers 
in length, constructed at a slight incline and furnished with vent holes 

* Compiled by J. Figueroa Domenech- Araluce, publisher, Mexico, 1899. 



MEXICO. 57 

to a depth of 94 meters. The works as they stand at present are prac- 
tically completed, the only requisites being an improvement of the bed 
of the canal, the construction of some bridges, and a practical device 
at the outlet of the tunnel for a combination of lock gates which will 
insure control of the waste waters and regulate the level of Lake Tex- 
coco, thus preventing inundations. 

The Valley of Mexico has undergone a great modification with the 
opening of the main canal. The waters, which formerly emptied into 
the small lakes, and owing to the configuration of the land, had no nat- 
ural outlets, thus constituting at times centers of infectious diseases, 
are now drained into Lake Texcoco and can be controlled at will, either 
allowed to flow out when too abundant, or retained for irrigation pur- 
poses in case of need. As the valley is situated within the torrid zone, 
its climate might naturally be expected to be exceedingly hot, but as 
its altitude above sea level is 2,280 meters, the mean temperature is 
that of the temperate zone. During the summer the maximum tem- 
perature is reached at 2 o'clock in the afternoon in the months of April 
and May and does not exceed 26° C. (78.80° F.) while the lowest tem- 
perature in the morning during the same months is about 10° C. 
(50° F.), the mean temperature being from 18° to 19° C. (64° to 6Q° F.). 
During the winter, the minimum temperature recorded in the morn- 
ings of November, December, and January, is about 2° C. (35° F.), 
while the maximum experienced during the same months is from 19° to 
20° C. {Q6° to 68° F.), the mean temperature being, therefore, about 
12° C. (53.60° F.). As indicated by these figures, the mornings are 
cool and pleasant all the year and the afternoons temperate. There 
are only two seasons — the dry season from October to March, and the 
rainy season from April to September. The rainfall throughout the 
year is not very heavy, but as it is all utilized in the valley for irriga- 
tion purposes, it equals in its effect a much larger quantit3^ The 
winds blow from the northeast, but are never so strong as to become 
hurricanes. 

The natural products of the valley are exclusively of an agricultural 
character and in keeping with the aridity of the soil, corn, wheat, and 
vegetables being the leading products in the order named. The 
"maguey" grows well, also certain fruits, such as the "zapote," 
peaches, apples, etc. The abundance of flowers during the whole year 
throughout the valley is as remarkable as the lack of mineral wealth, 
so plentiful elsewhere within the Mexican territory. 

The Federal District — population 476,413^ — lies to the southeast of 
the valley, between 19° 8' and 19° 33' north latitude and 11' east and 
13' west of the meridian of Mexico. At its greatest length the District 

^ The population given throughout the book is according to the latest corrections 
to the Census of 1895. 



58 MEXICO. 

measures 49 kilometers from southeast to north, and its extent east 
and west is 40 kilometers. Official data in regard to the area give it 
as 1,200 square kilometers, not including- the territory occupied by Lake 
Xochimilco and a portion of the Chalco Lake, both of which are now 
dry. Nearly one-half of the rural inhabitants of the District are 
Indians engaged in agricultural pursuits. 

The Federal District is divided into four prefecturas and one munic- 
ipalit)^, as follows: Prefecture of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, chief town, 
Atzcapotzalco; Tacubaya, Tlalpam and Xochimilco, whose chief towns 
bear the name of the respective prefectures, and the municipality of 
Mexico, capital of the Republic. The prefecture of Guadalupe- 
Hidalgo, population 16,498, embraces the northern portion of the 
district, being divided into two municipalities; Atzcapotzalco and 
Guadalupe-Hidalgo. The chief town of the prefecture is in constant 
communication with the capital by means of tramways. The munic- 
ipality of Guadalupe is celebrated on account of the temple dedicated 
to Our Lady of Guadalupe, the patron saint of the Republic, who, 
according to tradition, appeared on the hill of Tepeyac within the 
town of Guadalupe. The soil of the prefecture is barren toward the 
east, but salt deposits, left through the evaporation of Lake Texcoco, 
are abundant, the main sources of exploitation being chloride of 
sodium, carbonate of soda, and nitrate of potassium. There is also a 
petroleum well at Guadalupe, and the surrounding hills yield fine 
building stones. There is not a great variety of vegetation, it being 
confined almost exclusively to the western portion of the prefecture, 
the leading produce being corn, vegetables, and maguey. 

The prefecture of Tacubaya — population 32,433 — occupies the south- 
east portion of the Federal District and is formed by five municipalities: 
Tacubaya, Mixcoac, Tacuba, Santa Fe, and Coaximalpa. The chief 
town is Tacubaya, the principal pleasure resort of the valley, and 
possessing fine buildings and gardens. The National Astronomic 
Observatory is a handsome building of modern architecture, erected 
on the highest point of the town, and containing some very fine 
instiuments. The San Miguel and Monte de las Cruces mountain 
peaks form the southern boundary of the prefecture, and several 
streams originating on their slopes irrigate the land, which is the 
best agricultural section in the whole district, and supply drinking 
water for the City of Mexico. As is the case throughout the entire 
district, corn is the chief agricultural product, though in Tacubaya and 
Mixcoac floriculture is carried on extensively — this industry giving 
rise to floral expositions and fairs. Fruits may also be cultivated with 
care. 

The prefecture of Tlalpam — population 47,039 — embraces five munic- 
ipalities. It is situated between Tacubaya on the west, Xochimilco 
on the east, Mexico on the north, and the States of Mexico and Morelos 



MEXICO. 59 

on the south. Tlalpam is also the name of its chief town, which, after 
Tacubaya, is the principal summer resort for the inhabitants ot the 
capital. Situated on a picturesque spot, where the mountain slopes 
mer^e into the plain, it presents the peculiarity of possessing fertile 
lands in one section and absolutely sterile soil in another. The munic- 
ipality of San Angel is noted on account of the "Feast of Flowers" 
held there, when prizes are awarded to cultivators of fruits and 
flowers. Embellished with innumerable gardens, filled with the rich- 
est flowers, and orchards producing the finest fruits and vegetables, 
and enriched with palatial dwellings, there are few more charming 
spots in the world. The southern portion of the prefecture embraces 
the slope of Mount Ajusco, whose ramifications extend northwardly 
as far as San Angel and Tlalpam, where the plain commences. The 
small streams of the locality empty into the canal of Xochimilco. 

The prefecture of Xochimilco — population 48,662 — occupies the east- 
ern and southern portions of the district and contains nine municipali- 
ties. Xochimilco, the chief town, is one of the oldest cities of the 
Anahuac Valley. It lies on the shores of what was formerly Lake 
Xochimilco, which no longer exists in its original form, the waters 
having been drained into numerous canals for the advantageous irri- 
gation of the now fertile lands surrounding it. The leading products 
are the same as in the other prefectures. The topography of this region 
is varied, and while it is not traversed by a single natural stream, the 
soil is extremely fertile, as the several canals carrying the waters of 
the rivers Tlalmanalco and Tenango to the Xochimilco Canal irrigate 
the lands, and in the mountainous region of the south suflicient 
moisture is supplied by the frequent rains to maintain a vigorous 
vegetation, corn being the principal product. The produce of the 
region is transported to the capital in canal boats. 

From the foregoing it is evident that mountains and valleys are the 
main physical features of the Federal District. To the north rise the 
ramifications of the Sierra de Guadalupe, from 200 to 230 meters 
above the level of the capital, while he east and center is an exten- 
sive plain broken only by the Santa Jatarina and Estrella mountains, 
respectively 200 and 150 meters above the level of the city. Sed- 
imentary soil to a depth of 50 meters is found all over the plain, while 
the mountain regions are composed of eruptive rocks and granite. 
The small valleys between the mountains contain abundant vegetable 
matter. 

The area of cultivation in the Federal District is about three- 
fourths its whole extent, the uncultivated lands measuring about 310 
square kilometers. The value of property varies according to 
irrigation facilities and the means of communication. Public lands 
fluctuate between 18 and 20 cents per square meter, while other lands, 
in better condition, command as much as 50 cents. Within the City 



60 MEXICO. 

of Mexico property in the northern, southern, and eastern sections is 
quoted at 2 to 6 pesos ^ the square meter; from 30 to 35 pesos on the 
west side, and in the central section as high as 200 pesos per square 
meter. 

The municipality of Mexico embraces the capital proper and the 
surrounding country, its maximum radius being 8 kilometers, with a 
population of 331,781. Besides the city proper, the other points of 
interest in the municipality are Chapultepec, Santa Anita, and the Hot 
Springs of El Penon. 

The City of Mexico is one of the most ancient cities of this continent, 
having been successively the capital of the Aztec Empire, of the Span- 
ish colony of New Mexico, and now of the Republic, being, in addition, 
the chief town of the Federal District. Its foundation dates from 1325 
or 1327, when the Aztecs, after long wanderings, were directed b}^ the 
oracle to settle on this spot where they had seen the auspicious omen 
of an eagle perched on a nopal (cactus) devouring a snake, which is at 
present embodied in the coat-of-arms of the Republic. The original 
name of the city, Tenochtitlan ("cactus on a stone"), was changed 
afterwards to Mexico, in honor of the war god Mexitli. The Aztec 
civilization gave great impetus to the city's development, and in 1150, 
or about that time, the mud and rush houses of the first inhabitants 
had been replaced by solid stone structures. It had attained its high- 
est degree of splendor at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards 
(1519), the number of dwellings being from 50,000 to 60,000 and the 
population being estimated at 600,000. The city was then about 12 
miles in circumference and was intersected by canals, and, as it had 
been built, in part, on piles amid the islets of Lake Texcoco, grouped 
around the central inclosure of the great Teocalli, it was connected 
with the mainland by six long and solidly constructed causeways. 
Mexico City has been the scene of many stirring events; among others, 
the destruction, in 1692, while under Spanish rule, of all the municipal 
buildings; several revolutions; capture by the United States Army, 
after the battle of Chapultepec, September 13, 1817, and by the French 
army, under General Forey, in 1863. Since the defeat of the French 
intervention scheme in 1867, and the overthrow of Maximilian, peace 
has been maintained continually and the city has become a great 
center of civilization. 

The limits of the present City of Mexico embrace almost twice the 
area of the old one, the extension having been in a northwesterly direc- 
tion, and the new portion not being so regularly laid out as the old. 
There are about 900 streets and lanes traversing the city at right 
angles, from north to south and from east to west, and rail connections 
with Veracruz, 263 miles distant, on the Atlantic; with Acapulco on 
the Pacific, 290 miles; with Oaxaca, 205 miles; with Matamoras on the 

^ One peso is equal to $0,464 American gold. 



MEXICO. 61 

United States frontier, 863 miles, and with El Paso, Tex., a distance 
of 1,224 miles. 

Among the principal public buildings are the Cathedral, considered 
the largest and most sumptuous church in America. It is built on the 
north side of the Plaza de la Constitucion, which covers 14 acres, and 
is embellished with shade trees, gardens, marble fountains, and seats. 
The Cathedral was founded in 1573 by Philip II, of Spain, and the work 
lasted through the reigns of four monarchs, extending nearly a cen- 
tury, and was completed, with the exception of the towers, in 1667, 
at a cost of $2,000,000. It is built on the same site once occupied by 
the Teocalli, or Aztec Temple, and measures 130 meters from north to 
south and 60 meters from east to west. The interior belongs to the 
Doric order of architecture, mingled with reminiscences of the Gothic 
style, a feature of the Spanish constructions of the sixteenth century. 
It it divided into five naves, decreasing in height from the center 
to the sides, and includes 14 chapels, while 20 striate columns 
support the graceful arches and vaulted roof, forming a latin cross, 
and the whole is surmounted by a beautiful dome, ornamented with 
paintings by the celebrated Jimeno. The high altar is supported by 
marble columns and surrounded by a tumbago balustrade with 62 
statues of the same rich gold, silver, and copper alloy serving as 
candelabra. The elaborately carved choir is also inclosed by tumbago 
railings weiging 26 tons, and valued at $1,500,000. The style of the 
exterior is Renaissance, with five domes, and two open towers 62 
meters high. 

Among the other temples worthy of mention are the Prof esa, Loreto 
Santa Teresa, Santo Domingo, and San Hipolito, all of large pro- 
portions and containing artistic relics. The National Palace (Palacio 
Nacional) is another of the most remarkable public buildings as it is 
intimately connected with the history of the country, having been 
once the sumptuous abode of Montezuma II, last but one of the Aztec 
Emperors; also the residence of 5 Spanish Governors (from Cortes to 
Gonzalo de Estrada) of 2 Audiencias, of 63 Viceroys (from Don Antonio 
de Mendoza to O'Donoju), of 1 Mexican Emperor, Yturbide, of 1 foreign 
Emperor, Maxmilian, and of 33 Presidents of the Republic, from 
General Victoria to General Diaz, the present Chief Magistrate. The 
architecture of the building is poor and monotonous and nothing 
remains of its former Aztec splendor. The area occupied by the 
palace measures 40,000 square meters, thus constituting one of the 
largest public buildings in the world, and includes the following 
departments: The Presidential suite of reception rooms; the Ambassa- 
dors' room; five Executive Departments (Interior, Foreign Affairs, 
Treasury, War, and Justice); the General Archives of the Nation; 
General Postofiice and Engineers' headquarters; the Artillery head- 
quarters; the National Museum and Observatory; the Meteorological 
Bureau, and others. 



62 MEXICO. 

The School of Mining and Engineering is another remarkable build- 
ing, constructed entirely of stone, and dating from the last century. Its 
facade is Doric and of imposing and severe beauty, while the interior, 
of the same architectural style, is ornamented with several frescoes b}'- 
Jimeno. The School of Engineering is now annexed to the School of 
Mining, and possesses an astronomical and meteorological observatory, 
a librar}^ containing over 6,000 volumes, and cabinets of mineralogy, 
geology, and paleontology. The Department of Fomento (Promotion) 
occupies a portion of this building, whore it has its own printing 
establishment. 

The National Library was originally built for a church, being dedi- 
cated to St. Augustine in 1692, but in 1867 President Juarez devoted 
it to its present use. It is a massive stone structure of varied architec- 
ture and consists of three sections: the main structure, ornamented 
with the statues of ancient and modern celebrities, is devoted to the 
reading room; the library proper, containing over 200,000 volumes, 
and the whole building is surrounded by gardens and inclosed within 
an iron railing, with stone columns at regular intervals, upon which 
are erected 20 busts representing as many Mexican celebrities, among 
others being Tezozomoc and Ixtlilxochitl, Aztec chroniclers; Netza- 
hualcoyotl, the poet king; Clavijero and Alaman, historians, etc. 

The Castle of Chapultepec rises from the top of a hill, west of the 
city, amid century-old trees and beautiful gardens. Both the castle 
and the location are full of historic memories. The interior of the 
structure is tastefull}^ and richly decorated, it being the summer home 
of the President. Its spacious rooms and galleries contain the finest 
rugs and Gobelin tapestries, beautiful frescoes in the Pompeian style, 
and artistic furniture of red African marble. The Military School 
occupies a portion of this building. 

There are many other fine buildings in the city too numerous to 
mention separatel}^. Among the public monuments are found the 
statue of Charles IV, the monument to Columbus, the monument to 
Cuauhtemoc, all on the "Paseo de la Reforma," the richest and most 
beautiful park in this cit3^ 

The principal theaters are the " Teatro Nacional," or opera house, 
with a seating capacity of 3,000 persons, the "Teatro Principal," a 
small building, the " Circo Orrin," and others. There are also two bull 
rings, a race track, etc. 

Besides the National Library, already mentioned, the city possesses 
several others, among which the following may be mentioned: The 
School of Jurisprudence, 20,000 volumes; the " Cinco de Mayo," 
12,000; Preparatory School, 10,000; School of Engineering, 8,000. 

The National Museum dates from the eighteenth century and con- 
tains many objects of archeological, ethnological, anthropological, and 
historical value. There are 2 observatories, the National, already 



MEXICO. 63 

mentioned, and the one belonging to the School of Engineering; a 
Conservatory of Music, and several scientific associations. 

According to the latest available data, there are published in the 
city of Mexico 33 daily papers and 109 magazines, reviews, weekly and 
fortnightly publications; 130 in Spanish, 6 in English, 2 in French, 1 
in German, and 3 in Spanish and English. 

The City of Mexico being both the administrative and the commer- 
cial center of the Republic is the focus of all the railways from the 
States, whose tracks are also used for the service of the District. The 
National Railway, which connects the Republic with the United States, 
passes through Tacuba and Atzcapotzalco; the Mexican, connecting the 
capital with Veracruz, passes through Los Reyes and the Cuernavaca 
through several other towns. The steam railroads operating solely 
within the District are the Tacubaya Railway, connecting with the lines 
going west to Santa Fe and south to Tizapan, and the Tlalpam Railway, 
which goes through Churubusco, San Antonio, Santa Ursula, and 
Hueypulco. The other important railways of the District are the 
tramwaj^s of the capital, leaving the city about every half hour and 
connecting it with several adjacent towns. These are the Tlanepautla 
line, which runs through Tacubaya and Atzcapotzalco; the line to Gua- 
dalupe; the line to the Hot Springs of El Penon; the line of Ix:tapalapa, 
connecting several small towns, and the Chapultepec line, with the 
railroad of Tlalpam. There are besides good wagon roads and the 
Xochimilco Canal, which is the medium of communication by boat. 
According to the "Guia General," there are in the district about 213 
kilometers of railroads in operation, as follows: Standard gauge, 169 
kilometers 325 meters, and narrow guage, 72 kilometers 566 meters. 
Of these about 116 kilometers are street lines. A tabulated statement 
published by the same authority shows that from 1873 to December 31, 
1897, the trafiic over all lines of the District amounted to 244,637,816 
passengers, and the gross earnings of the lines are estimated at 
$19,828,854, Mexican silver. 

As a commercial center the City of Mexico is the richest in the 
country, possessing wealthy banking institutions, important railroads, 
telephones, telegraphs, electric light and power plants, manufacturing 
industries, large buildings devoted to stores and warehouses, and, in 
short, all the comforts and conveniences to be found in any large city. 

The principal banking institutions of the capital are the " Banco 
Nacional de Mexico," with a capital of 120,000,000; the "Inter- 
nacional Hipotecario," $5,000,000, and the " Londres y Mexico," 
$10,000,000. Both the "Nacional" and the "Londres y Mexico" 
have branches in several of the States. There are, besides, other 
banking houses doing business with all the large commercial centers 
in the country and abroad. 

There are several manufacturing industries established in the capi 



64 MEXICO. 

tal, including wine and liquor distilleries, factories for pottery, tobacco, 
carriages, wagons, cardboard and paper, matches (wax and wooden), 
glue, chocolate, artificial ice, gloves, glass, cotton fabrics, knitted 
goods, soap, blank books, playing cards, furniture, hats, lace, etc.; 
as well as foundries, breweries, and printing establishments. There 
are also several life and fire insurance companies, both foreign and 
national. The city possesses excellent hotels, restaurants, and cafes. 

The capital, like many European and American cities, says a Mexi- 
can publication,' has experienced great difiiculty in securing a water 
supply, and has undertaken works of great importance to obtain the 
proper amount. When the City of Mexico was known during the 
time of the Aztecs as the " Nueva Tenoxtitlan," its drinking water was 
supplied by the spring called "AlbercaChica de Chapultepec. " During 
the colonial period, in 1576, the Santa Fe springs were purchased, 
which now produce 6,000 liters of water per minute, and in 1786 
water was furnished by the Desierto and Leones springs, which now 
yield 8,000 liters per minute. From that time down to 1888 the city 
council did not secure any other properties; but in that year it pur- 
chased the "Alberca Grande de Chapultepec," which gives 7,000 
liters of water per minute. All these acquisitions, however, did not 
suffice to furnish this necessary element to the city. 

In 1896 the city council, fearing a water famine, acquired a water 
supply from the Hacienda de los Morales, which gives 9,000 liters per 
minute, and also a supply of 800 liters per minute from the Con- 
cesion Chousal. Lastl}^ in 1899-1900, a supply has been secured from 
Rio Hondo, which, united to that from Morales, produces 30,000 liters 
per minute. When advantage can be taken of all these, the city will 
have a supply of 55,000 liters per minute, representing a total of 
79,200 cubic meters in twenty-four hours, which, distributed among 
•100,000 inhabitants, will give each individual 198 liters in that time. 
This will give a larger supply to the inhabitants of Mexico than is 
enjoyed by the population of London, Berlin, Brussels, and even some 
cities of the United States, like New Orleans, where each inhabitant 
only has 140 liters per day. And if to the said amount of 55,000 
liters there be added 14,000 liters per minute, flowing from the 1,039 
artesian wells recorded in the proper office, there will result a total 
distribution of about 250 liters per day per inhabitant. 

The present difficulty consists in that the distribution is by no means 
uniform. In the First Ward, with 41,000 inhabitants, each one receives 
but 77 liters per day, while in the Eighth Ward, with a population of 
9,000, each resident receives 219 liters per day. There are at present 
6,630 houses, according to official statistics, supplied with water, and 
the city has 100 kilometers of pipes of different dimensions to carry 

^"El Imparcial," Ciudad de Mexico, February 24, 1900. 



MEXICO. 65 

it. The estimates for supplying water to the city for the present year 
amount to $405,780, including the $200,000 expended in acquiring the 
Morales deposit. The water tax yields $250,000 annually to the city 
coffers. 

The present director of the city waterworks has presented a new 
plan to the city council, embracing the following points: Equitable 
distribution of water; uniformity of pressure throughout the city, so 
that it may reach the highest stories of houses; making distinctions 
in the uses to which the liquid is put; the purifying of the water by 
means of filters, and the construction of new aqueducts. Under the 
new plan the 12,000 houses in the city can receive water, and by uni- 
fying the tax for the service (at present $30 per year for soft water 
and $48 for hard) can secure a revenue of over $500,000. 
65lA 5 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE STATES. 



The State of Aguascalientes, population 104,615, whose capital 
city bears the same name, is situated in the Central Plateau, and, 
though one of the smallest States in the Republic, is also one of the 
richest, as it contains within its territory an agricultural region .of 
great promise, and belongs, by reason of its altitude, to the Mexican 
temperate zone. It is bounded on the north, west, and northeast by 
the State of Zacatecas, which almost surrounds x\guascalientes, with 
the exception of a small section to the south, southeast, and east, 
where the State of Jalisco joins it. The total area of the State 
measures 7,644 square kilometers. 

Owing to its situation on the Central Plateau, Aguascalientes occu- 
pies a beautiful and fertile region, which is cultivated almost in its 
entirety, the western and central portions being irrigated by a number 
of rivers and brooks, while the eastern portion owes its development 
to the industry of the farming population. The eastern and south- 
eastern portions are occupied by the extensive plains of Tecuan, 
which, though containing a large number of haciendas (plantations) 
and ranchos (cattle ranches), are lacking in water courses. The fertile 
valley of Aguascalientes, irrigated by a river of the same name, lies to 
the northeast, while the no less fertile valley of San Jacinto is further 
north. 

The cold region of the State lies to the northeast, where the moun- 
tain chains of Asientos and Tepezala rise to a height of 2,414 meters. 
The remainder of the territory, with the exception of a small section 
in the southwest belonging to the hot zone, is in the temperate region. 
Almost all the western and northern portions of the State are moun- 
tainous, being traversed by the Sierra Fria, and in the southwest are 
the mountains of the Sierra del Laurel. A number of plateaus and 
isolated hills and a few chains of mountains rise in the center of the 
State, so that the mean altitude is from 1,000 to 2,000 meters above 
sea level, excepting in the sections occupied hy the Sierra Fria and the 
Sierra del Laurel, where the elevation varies from 2,000 to 3,000 meters. 

As has been stated, the irrigation of the western and central por- 
tions of the State, by reason of numerous rivers and brooks, is of the 
finest order, but in the eastern part rain and artesian-well waters are 
alone available for this purpose. The principal river, the San Pedro, 



MEXICO. 67 

Aguascalientes, or Rio Grande, has its head waters south of the Zaca- 
tecas Mountain chain and enters the State on the north, and after travers- 
ing its entire extent from north to south enters the State of Jalisco. 
Other rivers are the Pabellon, Santiago, Morcinique, Chicalote, Labor 
Tejas, Calvillo, and Tepezalilla. There are also several lagoons or 
swamps, which are of little importance. 

The rainfall throughout the State is moderate except on the east- 
ern plains. Frost is frequent both in the highest regions and in the 
Sierras, notably in the Partido de Asientos, while in Calvillo it occurs 
rarel3^ The prevailing winds blow from the west, northwest, and 
north. The climate is rather unhealthy, typhus and malarial fevers and 
affections of the respiratory organs being the most common ailments. 

Aguascalientes (literally hot waters) derives its name from the 
several hot springs found within its limits, the principal ones being 
those in the capital of the State, San Nicolas de la Cantera, Ojo Cali- 
ente, Ojo Calientillo, and Colomo. The temperature of the waters in 
the several springs varies from 30° to 40.50° C. (86° to 105° F.). 

The fauna of Aguascalientes embraces over 27 classes of mammals, 58 
species of birds, 9 reptiles, 5 batrachians, 4 fishes, and 74 insects. The 
flora embraces over 137 species of wild trees, while there are over 48 
kinds of fruits; among others, 20 varieties of pears, figs, several kinds 
of grapes, 11 textile plants, several classes of tanning barks, leaves, 
and roots, oleaginous seeds or berries, dye plants, forage plants, poi- 
sonous and aromatic plants, gums and resins, 103 medicinal plants, and 
numberless ornamental shrubs and flowers. 

The principal industries of the State are agriculture, stock raising, 
commerce, and mining. Almost its entire extent is under cultivation, 
the principal products being cereals of all kinds, fruits of every varietj^, 
and leguminous plants. Such products as the almond, cotton, citron, 
sugar cane, mangrove, and other tropical plants and trees would thrive. 

Stock raising is carried on to some extent, and, while no statistical 
data in regard to the number and species of live stock can be obtained, 
the following official figures for 1897, taken from the Anuario Esta- 
distico, may give an idea of the extent of the industry: In that year 
there were slaughtered for consumption in the State 5,664 head of 
cattle, 13,914 sheep, and 4,124 hogs, valued at $136,894 silver. 

Mining, which should be one of the main sources of wealth in the 
State, has been almost abandoned. The principal minerals found 
are copper, lead, silver, and magistral,^ the former most abundant at 
Asientos and the latter at Tepezala. The mining district, 63 kilome- 
ters northeast of Aguascalientes, is formed by a group of isolated 
mountains, whose highest points are the Altamira range and San 
Juan, Las Pilas or Gala vera. 

^Magistral is a species of copper pyrites absolutely necessary for the so-called 
"patio process." 



68 MEXICO. 

The State of Aguascalientes is an important commercial center, 
exporting large quantities of corn and beans, especially to the Cit}^ of 
Mexico; flour and magistral to several mining districts (Zacatecas, 
Pachuca, Guanajuato, and other places in San Luis Potosi); cattle, 
horses, and mules to several points in the Republic, as well as fruits, 
lumber and timber, hides and skins, tallow, horns, etc. The State 
imports from the City of Mexico and from Europe and the United 
States, through the ports of Tampico and Veracruz, groceries, ready- 
made clothing, cotton, wool and silk fabrics, hardware, drugs, books, 
paper, chemical products, perfumery, arms and ammunition, furniture, 
glassware, wines and liquors, hats and bonnets, canned goods, jewelry, 
machinery and tools for agricultural, mining, and industrial purposes, 
carriages, etc. The total value of the trade of the State is estimated 
at about $7,500,000 per annum, divided as follows: Imports, $2,500,000; 
exports, $3,000,000; local trade, $2,000,000. The principal markets 
in the State are Aguascalientes, Rincon de Romos, and Calvillo. 

The Mexican Central Railroad crosses the State in two directions, 
from south to north the line from Mexico to Ciudad Juarez, and from 
south to northeast the line from Aguascalientes to San Luis Potosi. 
The principal stations on the former line are Penuelas, Aguascalientes, 
Chicalote, Las Animas, Pabellon, Rincon de Romos, and Soledad; and 
on the latter, Aguascalientes, Chicalote, Canada, Gallardo, El Tule, 
and San Gil. The State is in telegraphic and mail communication with 
the rest of the Republic, and the telephonic service is good and quite 
extensive. There are good wagon roads connecting the capital with 
the most important markets of the neighboring States. 

The State is divided politically into iourpartidos subdivided into 
eight municipalities. The partidos are the following: 

Rincon de Romos or Victoria de Calpulapam, population 13,588, 
whose chief town, situated on the Mexican Canal, 43 kilometers distant 
from the capital, bears the same name. 

Ocampo or Asientos, population 15,272, chief town Asientos de 
Ibarra, 10 kilometers from San Gil, on the Mexican Central. 

Calvillo, population 10,679, chief town bearing the same name, 627 
kilometers distant from Mexico City and 59 from Aguascalientes. 

Aguascalientes, population 65,076, its chief town, Aguascalientes, 
contains 30,872 inhabitants, and is the capital of the State. It is sit- 
uated on the Mexican Canal, 586 kilometers from the city of Mexico. 
Among the manufacturing industries of these partidos the principal 
ones are as follows: Cotton mills, tobacco factories, pottery works, 
tanneries, wagon factories, and wine and liquor distilleries. 

In the city of Aguascalientes there are two lines of tramways; tele- 
graph, telephone, and post offices, schools, hospitals, public libraries, 
etc., while all the principal towns in the State have similar institutions. 

Campeche, population 88,302, with a capital city of the same name, 



MEXICO. 69 

lies to the southeast of the City of Mexico, occupying the western 
portion of the beautiful and warm peninsula of Yucatan. Its borders 
are bathed by the waters of the Gulf of Mexico on the west and north- 
east, while Yucatan lies to the north and east, the Republic of Guate- 
mala to the southeast and south, and the State of Tabasco to the south 
and southwest. It occupies a large territory, the climate of which is 
deadly in many sections, especially in the region of the southern plains. 
The area of the State is 46,855 square kilometers. From northwest 
to southeast the Sierra Alta crosses the territory until it meets the 
Sierra Baja, extending to the northwest of Yucatan. With the excep- 
tion of this mountainous section, the State is a plain, occupied through- 
out its greatest extent by forests containing the campeche or logwood 
and other valuable woods. A portion of the southern region, contig- 
uous to Guatemala, is little known and almost uninhabited, as it con- 
tains large savannahs, swampy lands, and impenetrable forests. The 
richest section of the State is occupied b}^ the Partido del Carmen. It 
is well irrigated by both large and small streams, which empty into 
the numerous lakes and lagoons surrounding the Lake of Terminos. 
The shores of the lakes and rivers are covered with forests containing 
dyewoods, hard woods, palm trees, etc. These waterways are the means 
of outlet for the trade in woods, which owes its development to the 
flourishing port of El Carmen or Laguna, opposite Laguna de Termi- 
nos which is, perhaps, the best harbor of the Mexican Gulf, Campeche 
scarcely ranking as such. 

The climate of the State is hot and unhealthly and the rainfall is 
moderate, except in Partido del Carmen. Frosts are unknown, and, 
owing to the swampy and marshy condition of the land, malarial 
fevers are very common. The Sound or Bay of Campeche extends 
along the coast of the State, forming man}'- estuaries, points, bars, and 
some islands. The coast line is low, sheltered, and, in some places, 
muddy. Coral reefs and other calcareous banks are abundant. This 
bay, which is an inlet from the Gulf of Mexico, has an area of over 
6,000 square miles. 

The Banks of Yucatan, an enormous shoal extending along the coast 
of Yucatan opposite the Campeche coast, as far as its Tabasco boundary 
on the west, have, according to soundings made by Mexican, Ameri- 
can, and English sailors, a depth of 5 fathoms at a distance of from 5 
to 7 miles from the shore; of 10 fathoms from 20 to 35 miles, and 
a depth of 20 fathoms as far as a 60-mile limit WNW. off Punta 
Palmas, and almost an equal distance to the south, and of 30 fathoms 
for a few miles along the western limit of the soundings. Beyond 
this the depth falls abruptly to 40 fathoms. Hydrographic charts pre- 
pared by American and English experts show the main irregularities 
and dangers to be encountered in the Sound of Campeche. 

The, northern portion of the State, occupied by the partidos of 



70 MEXICO. 

Hecelchakan, Campeche, and Boloncben, lacks water courses, the 
region being fertilized by the rains, temporary brooks, and wells 
(called chenes) used for storing the rain waters. The southern portion 
of the State is well irrigated, especially the partidos of Carmen and 
Champoton. The principal river is the Sabancuy, which might prop- 
erly be called an estuary, being 92.50 kilometers in length and from 
400 to 700 meters in width, lying to the northeast of the Partido del 
Carmen, navigable for small craft and emptying into the Lake of 
Terminos. The bottom of this river is full of oyster beds. The 
river Marmantel rises in the Partido Champoton, traverses the Partido 
del Carmen from the southeast to the northwest, and empties into Lake 
Palao, with a total length of 98 kilometers. It is navigable for a dis- 
tance of 39 kilometers, and passes through forests of dyewoods and 
valuable timbers and cultivated lands. For a distance of 16 kilometers 
from its mouth the river measures 258 meters; thence its width is 25 
meters up to the twentj^-eighth kilometer, gradually narrowing to 4 
meters at Pital and growing smaller and smaller toward its head waters. 
The Candelaria, which is the largest river in the State, is supposed to 
have its head waters in Guatemala, and after traversing the State of 
Yucatan enters Campeche, irrigating the southern portion of the Partido 
de Champoton, thence running from east to west, and finally emptying 
into the Lake of Terminos. Its length is about 419 kilometers and 
its width varies from 125 to 175 meters at a distance of 10 kilometers 
from its mouth to about 51 or 52 meters, with a depth of from 8 to 60 
feet. It is navigable for a short distance only, on account of its 
precipitous course. The Chumpan, 95 kilometers in length, is navi- 
gable for small craft, its width varying from 62 to 84 meters and its 
depth from 12 to 24 meters, according to the season. It is a confluent 
of Lake Terminos. The Palizada is also one of the largest rivers in 
the State. It rises in the State of Tabasco, enters the State of 
Campeche on the southwest, traverses it for a distance of 123 kilo- 
meters, from southeast to northwest, and empties into Lake Terminos, 
forming the Boca Chica Bar. The Palizada is navigable for craft from 
15 to 50 tons burden throughout almost its entire course, being 68 feet 
in depth, and having a mean width of from 60 to QQ meters. The 
Champoton, another river of importance, is navigable throughout its 
course, which is a y&vj sinuous one. There are other rivers and streams 
of lesser importance. 

The Lake of Terminos is the most important in the State. Its shores 
are muddy and shallow. It communicates with the sea by means of 
two channels, the Principal and the Puerto Real. The tides in this 
lake are very irregular, the greatest height during the syzygies being 
2 feet. Other smaller lakes are San Carlos, Laguna Larga, Colorada 
el Corte, and a few small lagoons. 

The fauna of the State is rich and varied, though not very well 



MEXICO. 71 

known. There are about 50 species of mammals, 70 varieties of birds, 
40 reptiles, 8 batrachians, 40 fishes, 75 insects, and many varieties of 
crustaceans, mollusks, etc. The flora embraces over 150 species of 
wild trees, 50 fruits, 28 textile plants, 20 classes of leaves, roots, and 
barks for tanning purposes, 16 oleaginous seeds, 24 dyewoods, 10 for- 
age plants, 7 poisonous plants, 21 aromatic, and a great number of 
medicinal plants, several gums and resins, and countless flowers and 
ornamental plants. 

The principal industries are: The exploitation of cabinet woods, and 
the campeche or logwood (of first importance), commerce by land and 
sea, agriculture, stock raising, fisheries, exploitation of the salt deposits, 
extraction of the heniquen fiber and its manufacture into hammocks, 
ropes, mats, etc. 

According to Mexican ofiicial statistics, during the year 1897 the 
State of Campeche produced 3,220,000 kilograms of Brazil wood, 
valued at ^105,294; 38,569,970 kilograms of logwood, valued at 
$877,949; 1,000,000 kilograms of mahogany, and a little over the same 
quantity of cedar, valued at $50,000. 

Agriculture is one of the leading industries of the State, which pos- 
sesses fertile lands well adapted to the cultivation of the fruits of the 
hot and temperate zones. Rice, sugar cane, cotton, and similar prod- 
ucts might be advantageously cultivated in the southern part of the 
State, which is well irrigated, but the inhabitants devote their atten- 
tion mainly to the exploitation of logwood and valuable timbers. 
According to the Anuario Estadistico for 1897, there were in Cam- 
peche 219 plantations, classified as follows: Sugar cane, 28; cereals, 
30; heniquen, 47; woods, 56; tobacco, 4; and stock raising, 54. The 
only available data in reference to the last-named industry are the state- 
ment that in 1897 there were slaughtered for consumption in the 
State 4,430 head of Cattle and 2,167 hogs. 

The principal mineral wealth of the State lies in its salt deposits, 
extending from the port of Celestum (State of Yucatan) to the port of 
Campeche. The annual yield is estimated at 40,000 to 50,000 Jhnegas, 
exported to the States of Tabasco, Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Hidalgo, 
Puebla, and Oaxaca. 

The State maintains an active commerce with Europe and the 
United States, mainly in logwood and cabinet woods, the home trade 
being restricted to the salt exports (as above noted), shell products, 
palm hats, hammocks, etc. , to the City of Mexico, and the importa- 
tion of cattle and cereals in limited quantities. When, on account of 
the lack of rain, there is a scarcity of corn, this grain, as well as other 
products, is imported from the United States. The principal mer- 
cantile centers are Campeche, Carmen, Calkini, Hecelchakan and 
Bolonchenticul. 

The cabinet woods of the State are exported mainly to the United 



72 MEXICO. 

states and to Great Britain, the dyewoods to Great Britain, Germany, 
the United States, and France. Other exports are: Rubber, hair, 
cocoanuts, chicle, henequen, prepared hides and skins, etc. This com- 
merce may be estimated at about $1,250,000, silver, per annum. The 
imports embrace cotton, wool, silk, and linen fabrics; groceries, hard- 
ware, drugs and chemical products, paper, books, machinery, tools, 
agricultural implements, arms and ammunition, cereals, cattle, wines 
and liquors, etc. This trade is valued at about $500,000 annually. 
The total number of vessels entering the port of Carmen in 1897 was, 
according to official figures, as follows: Steamers, 135; sailing vessels, 
203, of which 76 were foreign and the rest Mexican; while 817 touched 
at Campeche, there being 241 steam and 576 sailing vessels classified as 
155 foreign and 662 Mexican. Three hundred and ninety -five and 853 
sailed from Carmen and Campeche, respectively^ divided as follows: 
Carmen, 189 steam and 206 sailing vessels, 146 foreign and 249 national; 
Campeche, 256 steam and 597 sailing vessels, of which 696 were 
national and 157 foreign. There are custom-houses both at Carmen 
and Campeche. 

The development of railroad traffic in Campeche is very small, due 
to the fact that the rivers are used as a means of communication with 
the interior and also that the principal towns are all situated on the sea 
coast. The railroad between Campeche and Merida is being exploited 
in sections, and between Campeche and Lerma there is a street rail- 
road 7 kilometers in length, other lines being in operation in the cities 
of Campeche and Carmen. In the Partido of Champoton there is a 
railway 40 kilometers in length connecting Ivonchac with Yohaltun. 
There are also telegraph and telephone lines, mail facilities, and fine 
wagon roads connecting the principal cities with those of the adjacent 
States, while steamship lines connect the principal ports with the rest 
of the world. 

The State of Campeche is divided into five partidos, which are sub- 
divided into municipalities. 

The Partido of Hecelchakan, population 22,511, has for its chief town 
a city of the same name, situated on the railway between Campeche and 
Merida, 38 kilometers northeast from Campeche. 

Campeche, population 23,651, is the smallest, but also the richest, of 
the five partidos, the chief town of which, Campeche de Baranda, pop- 
ulation 16,647, is also the capital of the State. It is situated on the 
Gulf of Mexico, 1,320 kilometers from Mexico City, 930 from Vera- 
cruz, and 164 from Merida. This cit}^ is the second in importance on 
the peninsula of Yucatan and is one of the richest and most beautiful 
on the Gulf. The Campeche wharf is 150 feet long, but owing to the 
fact that the depth of the harbor is only about 10 feet, heavil}' laden 
ships can not anchor there. Among the principal buildings are the City 
Hall, the Government Building, the hospital, a theater, the market, 



MEXICO. 73 

and several churches. There are also a fine park and public gardens, 
schools, and colleges, with a public library containing 3,600 volumes 
and a museum of natural history and an archaeological museum. The 
leading industries of the partidos are commerce, agriculture, fisheries, 
the exploitation of the salt deposits, etc. An active commerce is main- 
tained with the Mexican ports of Veracruz, Frontera, Carmen, and 
Progreso, and also with the ports of Havre, New York, and Santander, 
the main exports being hemp, dyewoods, salt, etc. In the city of Cam- 
peche are two street railway lines, measuring 2 kilometers and 2.8 kilo- 
meters, respectively, and from that point are lines running to Lerma 
and Merida, the former being 6 kilometers in length and the latter 53 
kilometers. The following lines of steamers touch at Campeche: New 
York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company, from New York; the Har- 
rison Line, from Liverpool and New Orleans; Romano & Co. (Mexican), 
from home ports, and the Transatlantica Espanola, from Barcelona, 
Spain. 

The partido de Champoton, population 6,596, has a town of the same 
name for its industrial center, situated on the Gulf of Mexico, 60 kilo- 
meters southwest of Campeche. 

The partido de El Carmen, population 15,345, with a principal 
town and port of the same name, situated 1,152 kilometers from Mexico 
City, and 168 kilometers from Campeche, comprises one of the richest 
and most important sections of the State, being celebrated for its dye 
and precious woods. There are several lakes in the partido, and it is 
said that the harbor of Carmen is the best on the Mexican Gulf. The 
commercial movement is estimated at about $1,500,000 per annum, as 
it is the port of departure for the exports of forest products for the 
entire State. 

Partido of Bolonchen or Los Chenes, population 5,199, has for its 
principal town Bolonchenticul, situated 62 kilometers east of Campeche. 
The celebrated cavern of Bolonchenticul is found 2 kilometers west 
of the city. In it are seven wells, from which the people obtain their 
water supply when the public wells fail, respectively called in the 
Ma3^a language, 6%ac-Aa(red water), on account of the color; Puxalhd 
(escaping water), because of the ebb and flow of the well, the waters 
receding at certain periods; Say ah (spring water); Akab-hd (dark 
waters), because of the obscurity of the place; Choco-hd {hot water); 
Oxil-hd (milk water); and Chimez-hd (insect water), because of the 
insect chimez which abounds in great numbers at the well. The cave 
is entered by means of ladders made of branches of trees, and its depth, 
to the first well, has been estimated at 1,400 feet. 

The State of Chiapas, population 318,599, whose capital is Tuxla 
Gutierrez, population 10,982, lies to the southeast of Mexico City on 
the Guatemalan boundary. It is one of the tropical sections and has 
a great future as an agricultural country, the wealth of its flora being 



74 



MEXICO. 



little short of marvelous. The boundaries are the State of Tabasco 
on the north, Veracruz and Oaxaca on the west, the Pacific Ocean on 
the south, and the Republic of Guatemala on the east. Its area is 
about 70,524 square kilometers. 

The southern portion of the State is traversed by the Sierra Madre 
Range, which is a continuation of the Andes of South and Central 
America. To the south of this range extends a narrow strip of land, 
varying from 10 to 89 kilometers in width and reaching to the Pacific 
Ocean, which forms one of the most fertile regions of the Mexican hot 
lands, where cacao, coffee, indigo, sugar cane, etc. , thrive, and forests 
of cabinet and dyewoods, medicinal plants, palm trees, mangrove, and 
timber are abundant. All this section is irrigated by numerous rivers 
draining into the Pacific from the slopes of the Sierra Madre. The 
volcano of Tacana, whose snowy peak is 3,990 meters above the level 
of the sea, rises in this region, and on its slopes are cultivated potatoes, 
wheat, and other products of the cold zone. The boundary line 
between Mexico and Guatemala crosses the top of Tacana. 

The Pacific Ocean bathes the coasts of Chiapas for a distance of 220 
kilometers, from its Oaxaca boundary line to the bar of the Sachinate 
River, on the Guatemalan boundary. The coasts are generally low 
and sandy and well sheltered, and do not present any obstacles to 
navigation. 

Although the entire territory of Chiapas belongs to the torrid zone, 
the climate varies according to the altitude, being hot on the coast 
and the lands irrigated by the Chiapas River; humid and unhealthy on 
the low marshy lands, especially at Tonala; cold in the valley of San 
Cristobal, and in the rest of the State it is generally temperate. Rain 
is abundant, except in the departments of Comitan, Chiapas, La 
Libertad, and Tuxla Gutierrez. 

There are occasional frosts in the valley of San Cristobal, but other 
sections of the State are rarel}^ if ever visited by them. The winds 
are very variable. Malarial fevers, typhus, smallpox, and affections 
of the respiratory and digestive organs are the most common diseases. 

The Andes Range from Central America traverses the State, running 
almost parallel to the coast, at a distance varying from 8 to 39 kilo- 
meters. This range is called the Sierra Madre, and from its main line 
several branches diverge, encompassing the fertile open valleys of 
Custepeques, Jiguipilas, Zintalapa, and Chiapas, and the inclosed valley 
of San Cristobal. In addition to the volcano of Tacana other remark- 
able mountains are the Tres Picos, north of Tonala, and the Gineta, 
on the Oaxaca boundary line. There are also the Cungozoe or Plumas 
and other small ranges. 

The eastern plains of Chiapas, known as the " Desierto de los Lacan- 
dones," have not yet been thoroughly explored. They are irrigated 
by the Usumacinta River. To the west of the Chiapas Valley lies that 



MEXICO. 75 

of Zintalapa, which is a desert tract of land, being an extension of 
the swampy region south of the Chimalapa Mountains in the State of 
Oaxaca. 

Chiapas is one of the least irrigated sections of the Mexican Repub- 
lic. The principal river is the Chiapa or Mezcalapa, which has its 
origin on Guatemalan territory. It enters the State ot Chiapas near 
Amatenango, traverses the central part of the State in a northwesterly 
direction, and finally empties into the Gulf of Mexico in the vicinity 
of Frontera (State of Tabasco), having in its entire extent a length of 
664 kilometers. It is known by several names in the different parts 
of its course, irrigates the principal sections of the State, and is 
the boundary between Chiapas, Veracruz, and Tabasco. This river 
receives the waters of numerous affluents and, on account of the 
strong currents and the large volume of water contributed by its 
branches, is navigable throughout a great portion of its extent. The 
Usumacinta River, which irrigates the northwestern section of the 
State, rises in Guatemala, between which Republic and Chiapas it 
forms the boundary line. Its many branches are navigable through- 
out, and serve as irrigating streams for the "lacandones" land and the 
States of Campeche and Tabasco. Its final outlet is into the Gulf of 
of Mexico, after a course of 560 kilometers. The two rivers above 
named constitute the hydrographic system of the State, the Chiapas 
traversing it for a distance of 390 kilometers, while the other rivers 
and streams are of minor importance. 

The Lake of Chiapas or Tepancuapan, situated 46 kilometers west of 
the city of Comitan, 1,447 meters above the level of the Pacific Ocean, 
belongs to the fluvial system of the Usumacinta River. Its extent is 
11 kilometers east and west and 5 kilometers north and south. It con- 
tains an abundance of fish. This is also the case in regard to the Lake 
of Islotes, which lies in the immediate vicinity. Other lakes, and 
many of lesser importance, are the Catazaya and Jumajab. 

The fauna of the State is rich and varied, embracing 60 species of 
mammals, 100 birds, 40 reptiles, 9 batrachians, 40 fishes, and number- 
less insects, myriapoda, crustaceans, mollusks, corals, sponges, etc. 
The cochineal {coccus cacti) is most abundant, as is also the mollusk 
called Aplisia depilans^ used by the Indians as a dye substance. This 
is said to be the same dye known to the ancients as lepus mariniis^ from 
which they extracted the purple of Tyre, in Asia Minor. 

The flora of the State is equally rich, comprising over 70 classes of 
cabinet woods, 60 different kinds of timber, 40 varieties of fruits, 30 
textile plants, 22 tanning plants, roots, leaves, and barks, 25 oleagin- 
ous plants, 36 dyewoods, 16 forage and 16 poisonous plants, 30 gums 
and resins, and many varieties of medicinal plants and ornamental 
flowers. The main industries of the State are agriculture and com- 
merce, which occupy the first rank; forest exploitation, stock raising, 



76 MEXICO.' 

and the development of the salt deposits of the coast. Among the 
principal cultivated products are coffee, cacao, tobacco, sugar cane, 
and indigo. Mexican official statistics for 1897 give the following 
figures in regard to the production of these articles for the period to 
which reference is made: 



Kilograms. 



Coffee 

Cacao 

Tobacco 

Sugar cane and products 
Indigo 



2, 465, 100 

144, 491 

382, 001 

10, 126, 998 

18, 200 



81,427,258 

32, 256 

81,633 

1,198,420 

29, 765 



Romero, in his exhaustive report on Coffee Culture on the South- 
ern Coast of Chiapas,^ estimated that a coffee plantation in Soconusco 
would yield in the fifth year, and every year thereafter, a profit of 
135.49 per cent on the capital invested during the four first years. 
Cacao yields four crops a year in the State, the principal crop being 
in May and the other three in August, November, and February. 
It also grows wild at the highest altitudes, where it is known under 
the name of "wild cacao." It is stated that the Soconusco cacao is the 
best variet}^ obtainable. 

The tobacco of Mapaztepel and Simojovel is, according to experts, 
as good as the product from Tuxla (Veracruz) and Huimanguillo 
(Tabasco). The indigo from the department of Tonala is very fine, 
and is sent abroad almost in its entirety. It is estimated that the pro- 
duction of raw indigo amounts to about 80.000 kilograms per annum, 
valued at from. $150,000 to |175,000. 

The climate and soil are adapted to the cultivation of fruits of all 
kinds, the mulberiy tree and the vine. Rubber grows wild through- 
out the State. Stock raising, although immense facilities are afforded 
by nature, has not been developed to the extent it deserves. There 
are, however, herds of cattle of all kinds, and the department of 
Tuxla Gutierrez is noted for the manufacture of round cheeses equal 
if not superior to the Edam or Holland cheese. The number of cattle 
slaughtered for home consumption in 1897 amounted to 14,966 head, 
of which 1,071 were sheep and 21,955 hogs, their total value being 
fixed at $1,011,557. 

The mining wealth of Chiapas has neither been properly explored 
nor exploited; the most trustworthy data, however, show that gold 
and copper are found in certain places in the Sierra Madre range; 
iron, lead, talcum, and coal in the valley of San Cristobal, and asphalt, 
sulphur, sulphate of sodium, gypsum, alabaster, nitrate of soda, salt, 
yellow amber, etc., in various sections. The salt deposits of Tonala, 

1 Coffee and Rubber Culture in Mexico. — New York, 1898, 



MEXICO. 77 

Cuztepeques, and Soconusco yield an abundant supply of that mineral, 
many persons being engaged in developing this source of wealth. It 
is said that the Sierra Madre range also contains silver, lead, and iron 
mines. 

Chiapas exports to other States of the Republic, to Guatemala, the 
United States, and Europe. The value of its trade with Guatemala 
and the States of Tabasco and Oaxaca is estimated at about $2,000,000 
annually, of which about $800,000 is credited to imports and the rest 
to exports. To Guatemala is sent cattle of all kinds; to Oaxaca, cof- 
fee, tobacco, etc.; to Mexico City, cacao, cheese, and tobacco; to San 
Francisco, Cal., coffee, indigo, woods, and fruits; to Europe, indigo 
and minerals. The imports of the State are cotton, woolen, silk, and 
linen goods, wines and liquors, arms and ammunition, petroleum, 
canned goods, sewing machines, machinery and agricultural imple- 
ments, dyes and medicinal products, paper, books, etc. The principal 
custom-houses are situated at Soconusco and Tonala. 

Three concessions have been granted for the construction of rail- 
ways through the State: One from San Juan Bautista to El Paso de 
Tamulte, another from the port of San Benito to Tapachula, and 
another from the port of Tonala to Frontera (Tabasco), passing through 
Tuxla Gutierrez. Only 50 kilometers of the last-named line are in 
actual operation. There are telegraph and telephone lines, an effi- 
cient mail service, and fine wagon roads throughout the State. 

The principal manufacturing industries are: The manufacture of the 
products of sugar cane, such as rum, sugar, molasses, etc.; cheese, 
hats, mats, cotton and woolen fabrics, cigars, soaps, candles, and the 
tanning of hides. 

The State is divided politically into 11 departments and 101 munici- 
palities. The departments are: 

Pichucalco, population 22,709; chief town, Pichucalco, 114 kilo- 
meters southwest of San Juan Bautista and 357 kilometers southwest 
of Frontera (Tabasco). 

Simojovel, population, 21,603; chief town, Simojovel, 1,076 kilo- 
meters east-southeast of Mexico City, 84 kilometers northwest of San 
Cristobal, and 172 kilometers southeast of San Juan Bautista. 

Palenque, population, 14,881; chief town, Catazaja, 126 and 124 
kilometers northwest and northeast of Frontera (Tabasco) and Carmen 
or Laguna (Campeche); another important town in the department 
is Palenque, 230 kilometers from San Cristobal and 316 kilometers 
from Tuxla, its neighborhood being celebrated for the Palenque ruins, 
which contain remnants of the Maya civilization. 

Chilon, population, 31,594; chief town, Ocosingo, 100 kilometers 
northeast of San Cristobal and 188 kilometers northeast of Tuxla 
Gutierrez. 

Comitan, population, 55,310; chief town, Comitan, 1,337 kilometers 



78 MEXICO. 

from Mexico City, 84 kilometers from San Cristobal, 88 kilometers 
from Tuxla, and 19 kilometers from the frontier custom-house of 
Zapatula; is on the Rio Blanco, and the commercial center of the State. 

Soconusco, population, 30,333; chief town, Tapachula, on the 
Coatan, 1,250 kilometers from Mexico City, 130 kilometers from 
Quezaltenango (Guatemala); another important town being the port 
of Soconusco or San Benito, 35 kilometers southwest of Tapachula, 
the principal traffic of which is carried on with Guatemala, Panama, 
and San Francisco, Cal. 

Tonala, population, 10,948; chief town, Tonala, one of the best 
ports on the Pacific coast, 200 kilometers from Tuxla Gutierrez and 
370 kilometers from San Cristobal (it being the natural port for these 
two cities), 998 kilometers from Mexico City, 508 kilometers from 
Oaxaca, and 139 kilometers from Tehuantepec. The railwaj^ from 
Tonala to Tuxla Gutierrez, San Cristobal, and Frontera starts from 
this point. The cit}^ also has a maritime custom-house and a number 
of foreign business houses, mainly American and German. It carries 
on an active trade with San Francisco, Cal., and the ports of Central 
America. This trade is valued at over $300,000 annually, of which 
$200,000 is credited to exports and the remainder to imports. The 
Pacific Mail connects the port with other Pacific ports. 

Tuxla Gutierrez, population 28,308, chief town, Tuxla Gutierrez. 
This town is the capital of the State, with 10,982 inhabitants, and lies 
5 kilometers from the river Sabinas, 220 kilometers from the port of 
Tonala on the Pacific, 170 kilometers from San Cristobal, 344 kilome- 
ters from San Juan Bautista, 487 kilometers from Frontera (Tabasco), 
and 1,115 kilometers from Mexico City. Its climate is temperate and 
healthy. It is an important commercial and manufacturing center and 
is soon to be connected with both the Gulf and the Pacific coasts by the 
Tonala and Frontera Railway. The principal buildings are the Gov- 
ernment Palace, the theater, the high school, and the hospital. Its 
main industries are tanning, the preparation of indigo, the manufac- 
ture of round cheeses, and commerce. 

Mexcalapaor Progreso, population 10,288, whose chief town, Copai- 
nala, is 84 kilometers from Tuxla Gutierrez. 

Chiapa, population 21,974, the chief town Chiapa de Corzo, being 
situated 12 kilometers from Tuxla Gutierrez, 85 kilometers from San 
Cristobal, 232 kilometers from the port of Tonala, and 1,127 kilome- 
ters from Mexico City. 

Libertad, population 15,721; its chief town is San Bartolome de 
los Llanos, situated in a fertile plain 70 kilometers from the capital 
of the State and 310 from the port of Tonala. 

San Cristobal or El Centro, population 55,939, whose principal town, 
San Cristobal de las Casas, was until 1892 the capital of the State 



MEXICO. 79 

and consequentlj^ is one of the most important towns in the depart- 
ment. Among- its buildings are the Cathedral, the Old and New Govern- 
ment palaces, the Institute of Arts and Sciences, the Episcopal Palace, 
the Seminar}^, the theater, the hospital, and the Public Library, which 
contains upward of 4,000 volumes. The city is 1,203 kilometers dis- 
tant from the capital of the Republic, 86 kilometers from the State 
capital, 370 kilometers from Tonala, 850 kilometers from Veracruz, 
by land, 538 kilometers from San Jose (Guatemala), 736 kilometers 
from Merida (Yucatan), and 746 kilometers from Oaxaca. Agricul- 
ture, stock raising, and manual industries are the principal sources of 
wealth of the city and department. 

The State of Coahuila, population 241,026, whose capital is Saltillo, 
population 26,801, is one of the largest, richest, and most fertile 
regions in the Kepublic, being also the third largest State. At its 
northern boundary it connects with the United States, and although 
its population is at present numerically small it is steadily increasing, 
owing to the great undeveloped wealth of its territory, which is 
traversed by five great railroad lines, the International, the Central, 
the Gulf Line, the National Mexican, and the Northern Mexican. 

The boundaries of the State are: On the north, the United States of 
America, from which it is separated by the Rio Bravo; on the east, 
the State of Nuevo Leon; on the south, San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas; 
on the southwest and west, Durango; and on the northwest and west, 
the State of Chihuahua. Its superficial area, according to data sup- 
plied by the State government, is 144,594 kilometers, and according 
to the "Direccion General de Estadistica de la Republica Mexicana," 
164,690 kilometers. 

The State, which is very irregular in outline, occupies a territory 
which, in the north, is a flat table-land, crossed by small ranges of 
mountains and hills, becoming more broken toward the south. The 
numerous branches of the Sierra Madre, in the southern and cen- 
tral portions, are very rich in minerals and form the beautiful valleys 
of Parras, Sobaco, Catarina, San Isidro, San Marcos, Alamo, Santa 
Rosa, and Hundido. The northern ranges are covered with zacate^ 
certain species of the agave plant, and cacti. In the plains extending 
from the foot of these mountains northward the heat is intense, owing 
to low altitude and the scarcity of rain. These plains form a desert 
where the rich coal deposits of the State are found. To the southeast 
lies the beautiful and rich agricultural region known as the Laguna, 
said to contain the most fertile soil in the world. The valley of Parras, 
the foremost viticultural section, is situated in the eastern part of 
the State. The mountainous region is rich in gold, silver, iron, cop- 
per, lead, and other mineral products. The altitude varies from 700 
to 5,800 feet above sea level, and with respect to temperature is 



80 MEXICO. 

divided into the hot lands, embracing- the northern portions; the tem- 
perate region, which includes the southern portions and the valleys; 
and the cold region, which is the mountainous section. The climate is 
not healthy, the most common diseases being malarial fevers, typhus, 
rheumatism, and aflections of the respiratory and digestive organs. 
Winds are very variable and rains abundant in the districts of Saltillo, 
Viesca, and Rio Grande; moderate in Parras, and scarce in Monclova 
and the lowlands. Frost is occasional in the southern portion of the 
State and very frequent in the Rio Grande section. The principal 
mountain ranges are in the districts of Rio Grande and Monclova. 
There are also the Sierra del Carmen or Las Cruces, on the boundary 
line of the two districts named; the Sierra Madre, in the Saltillo dis- 
trict; the Sierra Paila, in Parras; and Sierra Noas, in Viesca, besides 
numerous ramifications of the original systems, and small ranges and 
hills running in all directions. The different ranges run in almost 
parallel lines, and so close together that their slopes form a number of 
canyons, of which the principal are San Marcos, Santa Rosa, and El 
Rosario in the south, and Los Arboles and San Rodrigo in the north. 

Owing to the vast area of the State of Coahuila and the paucity of 
rivers irrigating it, the entire extent has been considered as a sterile 
country. This is true in a general way, as in many places only natural 
deposits of rain waters are found; but on the other hand, there are 
extremely fertile sections, such as the ' ' lagunas " thoroughly irrigated 
by the Nazas and Aguanaval rivers. The principal water courses are 
the Rio Bravo, or Rio Grande, forming the boundary line with Texas, 
which rises in the State of Colorado (United States), enters Mexican 
territory near Ciudad Juarez, or Paso del Norte, and after traversing 
a course of over 800 kilometers and receiving many tributaries, finally 
empties into the Gulf of Mexico. Next in importance is the Sabinas, 
forming the eastern boundary between the districts of Monclova and 
Rio Grande, which rises in Sierra del Carmen, passing through San 
Juan de Salinas and Juarez and enters the State of Nuevo Leon oppo- 
site the frontier custom-house of Guerrero, where it forms the Rio 
Salado, an affluent of the Rio Bravo. Other rivers are the Alamos, 
Monclova, Patos, Saltillo, Aguanaval, and Nazas, besides their tribu- 
taries and a great number of smaller streams. The principal lagoons 
are the Alamo, or Parras, in the district of Viesca; the Mayan, or Muerta, 
larger than the former, in the Parras district; the Agua Verde and the 
Santa Maria, in the district of Monclova. 

The fauna of the State has not been thoroughly studied on account 
of the great extent of territory and the scarcity of the population, but 
there are over 40 species of mammals, 70 birds, 16 reptiles, 5 batrachians, 
4 fishes, numerous insects, etc. 

The flora comprises over 60 varieties of trees indigenous to the cold 
and temperate regions, and 50 belonging to the hot lands. The prin- 



MEXICO. 81 

cipal fruits number upward of 40 varieties, notably grapes, both 
white and purple, suitable for the manufacture of wines, alcohol, and 
raisins; the Parras district is especially famous for their production. 
Other fruits are pears, apples, peaches, etc. The number of textile 
plants is estimated at 15; tanning plants, 13; oleaginous seeds, 10; 
plants for dyeing purposes, 10; forage plants, 13; poisonous plants, 17; 
gums and resins, 12; medicinal plants, TO, and over 100 varieties of 
ornamental plants and j&owers. 

Agriculture is the principal industry of the State; cotton, corn, 
wheat, beans, pease, sugar cane, linseed, and about 30 species of legu- 
minous plants being the most common products. Grape culture is 
attaining greater importance daily, and it is claimed that the product 
of the district of Parras is sweeter and more delicious than that of 
California, and equal, if not superior to, the Malaga and Granada 
varieties. Mexican statistics for 1897 estimate the total production 
of the State at 1,361,301 kilograms, valued at $14,872, besides 900 
hectoliters of grape alcohol, valued at $32,400, and 6,000 hectoliters 
of wine, valued at $120,000. These figures have reference only to the 
municipality of Cuatro Cienegas, in the Monclova district, there being 
no available data in regard to the district of Parras, whose produc- 
tion can, however, be safely estimated at more than $1,250,000 per 
annum. Cotton is another important product, Mexican official figures 
estimating the State's output in 1897 at 17,968,187 kilograms, valued 
at $6,264,632. Ixtle, during the same period, is quoted by the same 
authority at 6,577,043 kilograms, worth $2,430,338. There are also 
other species of textile plants grown. Almost all the plantations in 
Coahuila are equipped with modern machinery and implements and 
follow the most advanced systems of cultivation. 

One of the greatest sources of wealth is cattle raising, the plains 
affording excellent pasturage for the stock. Efforts have been made 
to improve the breeds by crossing the native cattle with fine imported 
specimens. Several foreign companies have bought lands for cattle 
breeding. 

The mineral wealth of the State remained unrecognized until a few 
years ago, but its development has since been so steady and rapid 
that now mining may be said to constitute one of the chief industries. 
The wealth of Sierra Mojada, Sierra del Carmen, and the valley of 
Santa Rosa is almost incredible. These mineral regions are in reality 
immense silver deposits, which, in conjunction with the coal fields of 
Piedras Negras and Salina Valley, and the agricultural products of the 
'^Laguna," form the foundations of the future wealth of the State. 
The registered number of mines in Coahuila on the 31st of December, 
1897, according to Mexican official figures, amounted to 264, covering 
an area of 4,513 hectares, the principal minerals being silver, lead, 
coal, copper, iron, and gold. 
651a 6 



82 MEXICO. 

Coahuila is one of the most prosperous commercial sections of the 
Republic, due, mainl}^, to its railroad s^^stem, which affords the neces- 
sary facilities for the transportation of the State products, such as 
cotton, live stock, minerals, wines, etc. The export trade is princi- 
pall}^ with the United States, the metallic products being forwarded 
over the Mexican Northern Railway from Sierra Mojada to Escalon, 
thence on the Mexican Central to Ciudad Juarez. Some coal is exported 
to the United States through Piedras Negras, the remainder being 
consumed in the country by such railways as use this fuel. Flour is 
sent to Nuevo Leon, cotton fabrics to the States of Zacatecas, Jalisco, 
Durango, Mexico, and Monterey; salt, live stock, wool, and skins to 
several Mexican States and to Texas; raw cotton, table grapes, cereals, 
etc., to several neighboring States, and ixtle and its various manufac- 
tures to the United States. The commerce of the State is in the hands 
of Americans, Spaniards, Germans, and Frenchmen. The leading mar- 
kets are Ciudad Porfirio Diaz or Piedras Negras, a customs port on 
the American frontier; Saltillo, San Pedro de la Laguna or Colonia, 
Torreon, Sierra Mojada, Monclova, Parras, and Viesca. According 
to the "Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal," the value of the trade through 
the city of Porfirio Diaz during the first six months of 1898-99 
amounted to $1,406,505 for imports and $1,491,056 for exports. The 
total trade of the State can be estimated from $11,000,000 to $12,000,000 
silver per annum. 

The railway system of the State is probably the best in the Republic. 
It is traversed by five different lines, as follows: 

The Mexican International, from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, on the banks 
of the Rio Bravo del Norte, opposite Eagle Pass (Texas), to the city of 
Durango, capital of the State of the same name, a distance of 869.61 
kilometers. Its main tracks are within the territory of Coahuila as 
far as Torreon, or a length of 616.55 kilometers. This railway system 
has several branches open to trafiic, and others either in process of 
construction or under survey, namely, from Sabinas to Honda, 19.81 
kilometers; from Monclova to Cuatro Cienegas, 67.15 kilometers; from 
Hornos to San Pedro, 23.37 kilometers; and from Pedricena to 
Velardeiia, 9.35 kilometers, this last in the territory of Durango. 

The Mexican Central, which crosses the southeastern section of the 
State in the districts of Viesca and Parras, running in the former 
district over the tracks of the International from Mexico to Ciudad 
Juarez and in Parras over its own tracks from Lerdo to San Pedro de 
la Colonia (La Laguna line). There are several stations, the line, in 
its course through the State, measuring 178 kilometers from San Isidro 
to Torreon or Nazas. At the latter place the Central connects with 
the International Railway. From Lerdo (Durango) starts the branch 
known as the "La Laguna" line, whose terminal station is San Pedro 
de la Colonia, the distance between the two points being 63.4 kilo- 



MEXICO. 



83 



meters. The tracks leave the territory of Coahuila after passing the 
station of Jalisco, and after traversing a section of Durango return to 
Coahuila beyond the Canon de Picardias. 

The Northern Mexican is essentially for the mining district, and 
covers a distance of 126 kilometers from Escal6n (Chihuahua) to 

Sierra Mojada. 

The Monterey and Gulf Railway runs from Monterey to Trevmo or 

Venadito, a distance of 106 kilometers. 

The National Mexican runs from Ventura to La Mariposa, 152 
kilometers, passing through Saltillo. In addition there is a line pro- 
jected to run direct from Monterey (Nuevo Leon) to the city ot 
Porfirio Diaz, and another line is being constructed from Saltillo to 
Concepcion del Oro. 

Besides the railroads there are excellent wagon roads as follows: 
From Mexico City to Saltillo, 925.61 kilometers; Saltillo to Monterey, 
105 kilometers; to Zacatecas, 480 kilometers; to Durango, 507 kilo- 
meters; to Chihuahua, 909 kilometers; to Zaragoza or Rio Grande 
and the shores of the Rio Bravo, 500 kilometers; to San Antonio, 
Tex. 864 kilometers, and from Zaragoza to Sancti Spiritus, Tex., 
1,032 kilometers. 

The telegraphic network of the State covers an area of about 2,000 
kilometers, while telephone lines extend over more than 100 kilo- 
meters. The mail service is very efficient. 

The principal manufacturing industries are the manufacture of 
cotton and knitted goods, wines, tanned skins and hides, soap, 
candles, cheese, shoes, molasses, furniture, pottery, carriages, wagons, 

and chocolate. 

The State of Coahuila is divided into 5 districts, subdivided into 33 
municipalities. The districts are as follows. 

Monclova, population 12,830; chief town Monclova, on the river of 
the same name, is situated in the midst of fertile farm lands, on the 
line of the International Railroad, 238 kilometers southwest of Ciudad 
Porfii'ioDiaz; 370 kilometers from Torreon; 1,514 from Mexico City 
by rail, and 170 kilometers distant from Saltillo. The other leading 
towns in the district are Muzquis, Cuatro Ciengas, Sierra Mojada— 
an important mining town, 420 kilometers from Saltillo, and one of 
the terminal stations of the Northern Railway, whose exports of lead 
and iron ores to the United States are estimated at about $300,000 per 
annum— and Candela or Romero Rubio. The International and 
Northern Mexican railways traverse the district, the former running 
in a southeasterly direction and the latter toward the southwest. 

Rio Grande, population 10,288; its chief town, Ciudad Porfirio 
Diaz (formerly Piedras Negras), is situated 1,752 kilometers from 
Mexico City, 480 kilometers from Saltillo, and 65 kilometers from 
Zaragoza. This district is on the boundary line between Mexico and 



84 MEXICO. 

the State of Texas, and its capital lies directly opposite Eagle Pass, 
with which it is connected by the great ' ' international bridge " across 
the Rio Bravo, belonging- to the International Railway. It is an iron 
structure, 539.90 meters in length. The city has five public buildings 
and is an important customs port. Mexican official figures for the first 
half of the fiscal j^ear 1898-99 estimate that the value of the foreign 
trade of the port for that period amounted to $l,tt06,605 for imports 
and $1,4:91,056 for exports. Among the other cities of the district 
are Zaragoza, on the Rio Grande, 65 kilometers from Porfirio Diaz 
and 44: kilometers north of Saltillo; Guerrero, 562 kilometers from 
Saltillo and 52 kilometers from Porfirio Diaz; Morelos, Allende, and 
Nova. 

Saltillo, population 34,194; chief town Saltillo, or Leona Vicario, 
population 26,801 (also the capital of the State), 865 kilometers from 
Mexico City b}^ the wagon road and 974 by rail, and 479 kilometers 
from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, on the International Railway. It is one of 
the stations of the Mexican National Railroad and is the principal 
industrial and commercial center of the State. The principal build- 
ings are the government palace, the Zaragoza theater, the municipal 
palace, the Catholic cathedral, the penitentiary, the hospital, the 
American consulate, and several others. The State college, called 
" Ateneo Fuente," has a good museum of natural history, also a small 
but very fine public library. Saltillo is noted for the manufacture of 
zarapes (shawls), made of wool, and remarkable not only for the fast- 
ness of their colors, but also for tasteful combination, artistic design, 
and fineness of fabric, some of them being worth as much as $200 to 
$300. Other industries are the manufacture of cotton cloth, knitted 
goods, and flour. There are several flour mills in the town and six 
cotton mills, having 7,592 spindles and run by water power. Other 
leading towns are Ramos Arizpe, 15 kilometers from Saltillo, on the 
Mexican National Railway; Artega, and Patos. 

Parras, population 18,213; its principal town, Parras de la Fuente, 
is situated 126 kilometers from Saltillo and 25 kilometers from 
the station of Pailas, on the International Railway, with which it 
is connected by a stage line. This town is located in a very fertile 
valley, noted for its fruit production, particularly grapes. There are 
cotton and flour mills and a factory devoted to the preparation of 
grape wine and grape rum. San Pedro de la Colonia is the second 
town in the district, situated 250 kilometers from Saltillo and 16 kilo- 
meters from the railway. In the town are several cottonseed-oil mills, 
cotton gins, and a factory for the production of white cotton cloths, 
colored drills, toweling, etc., which works 14,000 spindles and 350 
looms. The Mexican International Railway traverses the district, 
stopping at seven stations. 

Viesca, population 6,720, chief town Viesca, situated 224 kilometers 



MEXICO. 



85 



from Saltillo, 24 kilometers from Hornos, a station on the Interna- 
tional Railwa}-, with which it is connected by a stage line, and 73 kilo- 
meters from Torreon station. Other leading towns are Matamoros 
Laguna, 28 kilometers from Torreon station, and Torreon, an important 
railway station of the Central and the International lines, 1,136 kilo- 
meters from Mexico City, 616.55 kilometers from Portirio Diaz, and 
272 kilometers from Saltillo. This town contains a cotton mill and a 
soap factory. This district is essentially a mining region, and is well 
supplied with railway facilities, the Mexican Central traversing it from 
south to northwest, a distance of 178 kilometers, and the International 
covering an extent of 53. 29 kilometers from west to east. The former 
line has 9 stations and the latter 4. 

The State of Colima, population 55,752, capital Colima, population 
18,977, is, with the exception of Tlaxcala, the smallest and least pop- 
ulous of the Mexican States. It is situated in a beautiful tropical 
region with a good coast line on the Pacific. The boundaries are- the 
State of Jalisco on the north, northeast, and west; the State of 
Michoacan on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the south. Its area 
is estimated at 5,928 square kilometers, divided as follows: Main- 
land, 5,887 square kilometers, and the islands of Revillagigedo, 41 
square kilometers. • 

The northern section of the State, occupied by the slopes of the 
Colima volcano, constitutes the mountainous part of its territory, the 
ascent from the coast rising gradually to a height of 1,200 meters. The 
litoral is washed by the Pacific for an extent of 160 kilometers. It is 
low and sandy and contains rich salt deposits. The Revillagigedo 
group, composed of four desert islands of volcanic origin, named 
Socorro, San Benedicto, Rosa Partida, and Clarion, lies 240 kilonieters 
northwest of Manzanillo. The irrigating streams are the Armeria and 
Coahuayana rivers and their affluents. The former traverses the center 
of the State from north to south, emptying into the Pacific through 
the mouth of the Pascuales, after a course of 294 kilometers, its navi- 
gable extent only reaching 18 or 20 kilometers from the mouth. The 
Coahuayana forms the natural boundary line between the States of 
Michoacan and Colima. In addition to the water courses above-men- 
tioned, there are the lakes of Cuyutlan and Alcuzaglie. 

The climate is hot and unhealthy except in the north, where the 
snow-crowned peak of the Colima modifies the temperature. Rainfall 
is abundant and the winds in general are from the northeast. Malarial 
fevers are prevalent in almost all sections. 

The fauna of the State, although rich and varied, is little known. 
There are about 50 species of mammals, over 100 birds,^ 32 reptiles, 
7 batrachians, 50 fishes, and numberless insects of all kinds, besides 
corals and sponges and 12 species of moUusks. The flora embraces 
over 170 species of trees, 60 fruits, 25 textiles, 20 tanning plants, 12 



86 MEXICO. 

oleaginous seeds, 23 dj^e plants, about 20 forage plants, 9 poisonous 
plants, 40 aromatic, 100 medicinal, 22 gums and resins, and a great 
number of ornamental shrubs and flowers. 

The principal industries are agriculture, stock raising, and the 
exploitation of the salt deposits. The fertility of the soil, due to its 
fine natural irrigation, permits the culture of various products, among 
others coffee, cacao, tobacco, rice, cotton, indigo, sugar cane, cereals, 
and leguminous plants. The coffee of Colima is regarded in Germany 
as the best on the market. Official figures, from Mexican sources, 
estimate its production in 1897 at 57,700 kilos, valued at $31,150. In 
the same year, cacao was quoted at 100 kilos, at |100; tobacco, 2,300 
kilos, at $1,195; indigo, 10,200 kilos, at $25,500, and cotton, 29,900 
kilos, at $690. For the development of its agricultural wealth the 
. State is greatly in need of colonists. The mineral wealth lies prin- 
cipally in the salt deposits, which extend all along the coast. There 
are also mines of silver, gold, copper, and sulphur. 

Colima carries on an active trade with the towns south of Jalisco, 
with Guadalajara, Mazatlan, and other Mexican ports, and with the 
foreign ports of San Francisco and San Diego (California), also with 
Germany and the Hawaiian Islands. The maritime trade is conducted 
through the port of Manzanillo, and consists chiefly of exports of rice, 
coffee, rubber, fruits, cabinet woods, dyewoods, corn, hides and skins, 
minerals, etc., the imports being woolen, linen, and silk goods, alimen- 
tary products, glassware, arms and ammunition, wines and liquors, 
etc. Overland traffic is carried on by rail from Manzanillo to Colima, 
and to Villa Alvarez; in other instances, by wagon roads. The total 
travel of the State is estimated at a value of about $2,000,000 per 
annum. 

The railway of the Compaiiia Constructora Nacional Mexicana 
(Mexican National K.ailway) crosses the State over the tracks of the 
International Line from Colima to Manzanillo, a distance of 95 kilo- 
meters. A branch from Colima to Guadalajara is in process of con- 
struction. Another railroad runs from Colima to Villa Alvarez, 6,000 
meters in length, and a tramway 1,100 meters long connects Colima 
with the railroad stations. Telegraph and telephone service are excel- 
lent, and the mail service is very efficient. The "Pacific Mail," the 
"Red Line," the " Izaguirre," and the Sinaloa and Durango Railroad 
Company's steamers connect the port of Manzanillo with foreign and 
domestic ports, while good wagon roads run from Colima to Mexico 
City and the principal towns of the adjacent States. 

Colima is divided into 3 partidos, subdivided into 7 municipalities, 
as follows: Partido del Centro, Partido de Villa Alvarez, and Partido 
de Calvillo. 

The Partido del Centro, population 36,776, embraces the municipali- 
ties of Colima, Coquimatlan, and Ixtlahuacan. The principal town of 



MEXICO. 87 

the municipalitj^ of Colima bears the same name, and is the capital of 
the State. According to the last census, the population of the capital 
was 18,977 inhabitants. It is situated in a beautiful and fertile valley, 
which is irrigated by the Colima River, and is one of the handsomest 
towns on the Pacific coast. The principal buildings are the City Hall, 
the theater, the Cathedral, a new market house, and the station of the 
Mexican National Railroad. It is the commercial center of the State, 
being distant about 916 kilometers from the capital of the Republic, 
and possesses a street-car line and an electric-lighting system. 

Coquimatlan is the chief town of the municipality of the same 
name, distant about 12 kilometers from Colima, on the Mexican 
National Railway. 

Ixtlahuacah is the principal town of the municipality of that name, 
and is about 112 kilometers from Colima. 

The Partido de Villa Alvarez or Almoloyan, population 12,437, 
embraces a municipality of the same name and that of Comala. Almo- 
loyan or Villa Alvarez is the capital of the former, and is 1 kilometers 
from Colima, with which it is connected by a railway 6 kilometers in 
length. The chief town of Comala bears the same name as the munici- 
pality, and is 12 kilometers from Colima and 10 from Villa Alvarez. 

The Partido de Calvillo, population 6,539, comprises the municipal- 
ities of Manzanillo and Tecoman, their chief towns bearing the same 
names. Tecoman is situated 45 kilometers from Colima, on the Mex- 
ican National Railroad. Manzanillo is one of the leading towns of the 
State, and is situated 861 kilometers from Mexico City, 122 kilometers 
from Colima, and 374 kilometers from Guadalajara. It has a large, 
sheltered harbor, the town being built on the isthmus which separates 
the waters of the port from those of Cuj^utlan. It is connected with 
the capital by the Mexican National Railway, a distance of 94. 5 kilo- 
meters. The foreign trade of the port is estimated at about $400,000, 
divided equally between imports and exports. The Pacific Mail Steam- 
ship Company connects it with San Francisco (California) and Panama 
(Colombia), and the steamers of the "Red" Line, Izaguirre & Co., and 
of the Sinaloa and Durango Railroad Company transport merchandise 
between Manzanillo and the home ports. The custom-house of the 
State is located at Manzanillo. 

The State of Durango, population 295,105, with a capital city bearing 
the same name, is situated north of the torrid zone, on the slopes of the 
Sierra Madre Mountains. Its boundaries are Chihuahua on the north, 
Coahuila on the east and southeast, Zacatecas and the Territory of 
Tepic on the south, and Sinaloa on the west. The area, according to 
the State government, covers 118,381 square kilometers, while accord- 
ing to the Bureau of Cartography of the Ministry of Promotion it 
measures but 98,470 square kilometers. 

This is one of the largest and richest States in the Republic. The 



88 MEXICO. 

Sierra Madre Mountains are rich in minerals, while the valleys in the 
eastern section are well irrio-ated and fertile. Owing to topograph- 
ical conditions, the products of the hot, temperate, and cold zones can 
be cviltivated. The western and southern portions are mountain- 
ous, being traversed by the Sierra Madre Mountains. The mean alti- 
tude varies from 2,500 to 3,500 meters, the highest point being the 
peak of Muinoxa. The crest of the Sierra Madre is formed by the 
convergence of several high moiuitain ranges which rise in the west- 
ern part of the State, the principal l)eing Copolquina, Topia, Cavelas, 
Amacuti, Tominil, Muinora, Guanaccoi, and San Juan de Camarones. 
These mountains are all rich in minerals, mainly gold, silver, and lead, 
Other mountains are the Mesquital, Oso, Inde, Candela, San Francisco, 
Cuencame, and Noas. The principal isolated peaks are Cerro del 
Mercado, an inexhaustible iron deposit north of the city of Durango; 
Cerro del Fraile, an extinct volcano; Pichihuantepec, and Panuco de 
Avino, which contains an immense silver deposit. 

The most important river is the Nazas, in the northern part of the 
State. It rises on the eastern slope of the Sierra Madre and empties 
into Habas Lake, after a course of 600 kilometers. Its principal afflu- 
ents are the Santiago and San Juan rivers, the foi'mer traversing an 
extent of 215 kilometers before its junction with the main stream. 
The Tunal River rises west of 'the cit}^ of Durango, and after a course 
of 150 kilometers enters the Territory of Tepic. The Suchil, or Nombre 
de Dios, an affluent of the Tunal; the Rio Chico, or Alaponeta, and the 
Aguanaval are the other most important streams. There are also 
some small lakes, the principal being Colorado, Guatimape, Ojo de 
Agua, Sanceda, Inde, Cuencame, and Atotonilco. Near the city of 
Durango there is a fine mineral spring, holding in solution a large 
quantit}^ of iron. 

The climatic conditions of the State vary with the respective alti- 
tudes of the localities. The western portions, traversed by the Sierra 
Madre Mountains, are cold; the region of the valleys and plains, 
extending from the l)ase of the mountains, is temperate, and in some 
places rather warm, while the Nazas basin is temperate; the pasture 
lands are exposed to great variations, being extremely cold in winter 
and very hot in summer. Rainfall is moderate, and frosts are frequent 
in the mountains. The most common ailments are fevers and affec- 
tions of the respiratory and digestive organs. 

The fauna of the State, although rich and varied, is not well known 
The principal species embrace about 40 mammals, 70 birds, 13 reptiles, 
7 batrachians, and a large number of insects. The floral varieties are 
equally numerous, embracing nearly 80 tree families, 60 fruits, 13 tex- 
tiles, 12 tanning plants, 12 oleaginous plants, 11 dye plants, 10 forage 
plants, 4 poisonous and 16 aromatic plants, about 20 gums and resins, 
30 medicinal plants, and numberless ornamental shrubs and flowers. 



MEXICO. 89 

The principal industries of the State are agriculture, mining, stock 
raising, and commerce. The most important agricultural region is 
included in the partidos of Mapimi, Durango, San Juan del Rio, and 
Papasquiaro, the agricultural products being barley, corn, wheat, cotton, 
tobacco, fruits, leguminous plants, and sugar cane. Mexican official 
statistics for 1897 estimate the number of plantations or farms at 196, 
of which 2 are devoted to the culture of sugar cane, 157 to cereals, 7 
to maguey (mescal), 2 to tobacco, and 28 to stock raising. The produc- 
tion of barley was estimated as 6,170 hectoliters, valued at $19,310; 
corn, 917,146 hectoliters, at |2,089; wheat, 9,663,681 hectoliters, at 
1602,320; cotton, 5,533,043 kilograms, at $5,403,373; tobacco, 40,330 
kilograms, at $8,785, and sugar-cane products, 59,826 kilograms, at 
$11,908. The grapes of Villa Lerdo and Cuencame are famous. 

The leading stock-raising sections are the partidos of Durango, El 
Ojo, Cuencame, Nazas, Inde, and Papasquiaro. The number of the 
stock is estimated approximately at 1,000,000 head. 

The mining districts are the partidos of San Dimas, Tamazula, 
Papasquiaro, San Juan del Rio, Durango, and Nombre de Dios; gold, 
copper, and silver being the leading minerals. According to Mexican 
official figures, on the 31st of December, 1897, there were 1,331 mining 
claims registered in Durango, covering an area of 9,117 hectares, 114 
being in process of exploitation. The Cerro del Mercado is an inex- 
haustible iron deposit, 2 kilometers north of Durango, which," accord- 
ing to the opinion of experts, "could supply all the foundries of 
England for a period of 330 years." Sulphur, rubies, and other valu- 
able deposits are also found. 

The partidos of Durango and Mapimi are the commercial centers 
of the State. An active trade is maintained with the States of Sinaloa, 
Chihuahua, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Coahuila; also with the United 
States and Mexico City. The principal export trade consists in min- 
eral ores (mainly gold, silver, and iron), cereals, cotton, woods, fruits, 
live stock, hides and skins, wools, tallow, etc., besides cotton and 
woolen goods to the States of Chihuahua and Zacatecas. Its princi- 
pal imports are groceries, hardware, silk, cotton, wool and linen goods, 
machinery, agricultural implements, mining tools, arms and ammuni- 
tion, etc., the whole trade of the State being estimated at about 
$10,000,000 per annum. The principal ports of entry for foreign 
goods are Mazatlan and the customs posts of Ciudad Porfirio Diaz 
and Paso del Norte or Ciudad Juarez. 

The Mexican International and the Central railroads traverse the 
State. The former enters through the partido of Mapimi, crosses 
Cuencame and Durango, and terminates at the State capital, 879 kilo- 
meters from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz (Coahuila). In addition to the main 
line the road has several branches. The Central Railroad traverses 
the State on the tracks of the Mexico and Ciudad Juarez line. There 



90 MEXICO. 

are several concessions for branch lines. The cities of Durango and 
Villa Lerdo are equipped with street-car systems, and throughout the 
State are about 300 kilometers of telegraph and 500 kilometers of 
telephone lines and an efficient mail service. There are also excellent 
wagons roads leading to the adjacent States and to the City of Mexico. 

The principal manufacturing industries are tanning, the manufac- 
ture of flour, of ixtle carpets, and rope, and the extraction of fibers; 
there are also good pottery works, soap and candle factories, foundries, 
distilleries, and several cotton mills representing a value of over 
$500,000. 

The State is divided into 13 particlos, subdivided into 49 municipal- 
ities. The partidos are as follows: 

Tamazula, population 24,305; its principal town, bearing the same 
name, is situated near the Sinaloa boundary, 423 kilometers from 
Durango. This partido is rich in minerals. 

Papasquiaro, population 32,410; its chief town, Santiago Papas- 
quiaro, is 423 kilometers from Durango. 

Inde, population 13,532, chief town Inde, situated 316 kilometers 
from Durango, is rich in gold, silver, and copper mines, 

Mapimi, population 42,548; its chief town. Villa Lerdo, is the second 
city in the State, located 263 kilometers from Durango. This is one 
of the most advanced sections of the State, its agricultural wealth 
being developed hj the most modern methods and representing a 
value of about $2,000,000 per annum. It also contains valuable 
deposits of silver, gold, lead, copper, and sulphur. Villa Lerdo is 
connected with the station of the Central Railroad by a tramway 4 kilo- 
meters in length, and has very fine buildings, including steam flour 
mills, a foundry, and several other industrial establishments. Mapimi is 
the next town of importance, situated 511 kilometers from Durango and 
25 from the Central Railroad station. This town contains six foun- 
dries, a cotton and knit-goods mill, and other industrial establishments. 

Cuencame, population 22,940, chief town of the same name, 168 
kilometers from Durango and 12 from the Pasaje station of the Inter- 
national Railway, is an agricultural, stock raising, and mining district. 

San Juan de Guadalupe, population 10,605; its chief town, bear- 
ing the same name, is situated 300 kilometers from Durango, 35 kilo- 
meters from San Isidro, and 30 from the Symon station of the Central 
Railroad. 

Nombrede Dios, population 23,090, the chief town of which, bearing 
the same name, is situated 67 kilometers from Durango, and has in its 
vicinity cotton and woolen mills, using the waters of the Suchil River 
as motive power. 

Mezquital, population 6,930; its chief town, Mezquital, is 100 kilo- 
meters from Durango. 

Durango, population 60,427; its chief town, Durango, population 



MEXICO. 91 

26,425, is also the capital of the State, and is situated 918 kilometers 
from Mexico City, 262 from Mazatlan, 688 from Zacatecas, 235 kilo- 
meters by rail from the Torreon station of the Central Railroad, and 
870 from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz. The city contains many fine buildings, 
notably the Cathedral, which is considered one of the handsomest in 
the Republic, the Government Palace, the City Hall, the theater, and 
he mint, which, according to the " Anuario Estadistico" for 1897, 
had coined from 1887 to 1895 silver to the amount of $10,687,462.80, 
the coinage for 1894-95 amounting to $1,527,596. Durango has 10 
kilometers of city and suburban railroads; electric lighting, cotton and 
woolen mills, foundries, flour and sugar-cane mills. It also contains 
two banks, one a branch of the National Bank and the other a bank 
of issue. Agriculture and stock raising are the principal industries 
of the partido, mining receiving very little attention. Its trade is 
very valuable. Several stations of the International Railroad are 
within its confines. 

San Dimas, population 6,487; its chief town, bearing the same name, 
situated 144 kilometers from Durango, is one of the best-developed 
mining regions of the Sierra Madre. 

El Oro, population 15,899; its chief town, Real, or Santa Maria del 
Oro, is situated 311 kilometers from Durango, and is largely interested 
in the mining of gold, that metal being very abundant in its vicinity. 

Nazas, population 19,395; its chief town, bearing the same name, is 
situated 167 kilometers from Durango. 

San Juan del Rio, population 25,573; its chief town is San Juan del 
Rio, 104 kilometers from Durango. 

The State of Guanajuato, population 1,062,554, with a capital of 
the same name, is one of the most favored regions of the Republic, as 
it contains immense natural deposits of gold and silver, fertile lands, 
populous cities, and fine railroads, besides being possessed of a valuable 
commerce and equipped with almost all the latest improvements of a 
highly civilized country. The boundaries are: San Luis Potosi on the 
north, Queretaro on the east, Michoacan on the south, and Jalisco on 
the west. Its area is 20,276 square kilometers. 

The topographical aspect is varied, owing to its situation on the Cor- 
dillera of the Anahuac, the northeast and central sections being trav- 
ersed by mountain ranges, while to the west and south extend the 
rich valleys of San Felipe, San Judas, and Santiago, and the fertile 
plain of El Bajo. The principal cordilleras traversing the State are 
the Sierra Gorda, on the northeast, and the Sierra de Guanajuato, in 
the center, which are formed by the junction of the Codornices, the 
San Antonio, and the Santa Rosa ranges. The highest peaks in the 
Guanajuato Mountains are the Gigante, 2,346 meters in height, and 
the Llanitos, 2, 815 meters. Smaller ranges extend in various directions, 
inclosing the fertile valleys and plains of the State. 



92 MEXICO. 

The principal rivers are the Lerma, the Laja, and the Turbio, the 
last two being- affluents of the former. The Lerma River rises in the 
State of Mexico, traverses the State of Guanajuato for a distance of 
147 kilometers, and empties into the Pacific Ocean near San Bias, in 
the Territory of Tepic. The Laja rises in the Sierra de Guanajuato, 
and after receiving the waters of many affluents and traversing a 
course of 126 kilometers, empties into the Lerma. The Turbio, or 
Gomez, waters a territory 113 kilometers in length from its rise in the 
Sierra de Guanajuato to its junction with the Lerma. This State is 
also irrigated by the Irapuato River and several smaller streams. The 
only lake is Yuririapundaro (lake of blood), which is 97 square kilo- 
meters in extent and contains several small islands. Near the valley 
of Santiago there is a large circular well, known as the Albercas, 
which is believed to be the crater of an extinct volcano. Its waters 
are not potable and its depth has never been ascertained. Mineral 
springs are abundant. 

The climate is temperate and agreeable, except in the higher alti- 
tudes of the mountain ranges, the mean temperature being 21° C. 
(about 70° F.) and the highest 28° C. (82.40° F.) during the hot 
months. The prevalent diseases are malarial fevers and typhus. Dur- 
ing the rainy season the rainfall is heavy in the plains and valleys and 
moderate in the mountains. This season extends from the middle of 
May until the beginning of July. The prevailing winds are from the 
northeast, changing to southeast at the approach of the rainy season. 

The fauna of the State is very rich, comprising, in all, 610 species, 
divided as follows: 41 mammals, 206 birds, 44 reptiles, 15 batrachians, 
7 fishes, and 148 insects. The flora is no less rich, embracing over 23 
kinds of wood, 44 fruit trees and plants, 32 textiles, 11 tanning plants, 
15 oleaginous plants, 16 dyewoods, about 80 medicinal plants, 12 forage 
plants, 18 aromatic plants, 15 gums and resins, and numberless orna- 
mental flowers and shrubs. 

According to the location of the partidos, the leading industries 
are mining, agri(ailture, and cattle raising, the former taking first rank 
in Guanajuato, La Luz, Bietona, and San Felipe, and agriculture and 
stock raising in the plains and valleys. The principal agricultural 
products are cereals and leguminous plants of all kinds, fruits, chile, 
alfalfa, and canary seed, valued at about $21,000,000 per annum, 
besides which tobacco and zacaton receive considerable attention. 
According to Mexican official figures there are in the State 394 planta- 
tions or haciendas, of which 346 are devoted to the culture of cereals. 
In 1897 the value of corn, wheat, and barley products was as follows, 
in round numbers: Corn, 4,000,000 kilograms, $7,000,000; barley, 
100,000 kilograms, $190,000; and wheat, 55,300,000 kilograms, 
$5,000,000. Chile is quoted at 1,500,000 kilograms, worth $490,000, 
and tobacco at 100,000 kilograms, valued at $32,000. 



MEXICO. 93 

The total value of the stock-raising industry, comprising in all about 
1,000,000 head, is estimated at $10,000,000, hogs, sheep, and goats 
forming the principal elements. The annual production of wool is 
calculated at 200,000 kilograms, worth $80,000. 

The State of Guanajuato is one of the richest mineral regions 
in the world. The mining region follows the line of the angle 
formed by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra de Guanajuato, there being in 
all five mining districts, as follows: Sierra Gorda, Allende, Santa 
Cruz, Guanajuato, and Leon. According to the Geografia y Esta- 
distica, by Velasco (1890), there were 273 mines, as follows: 31 
silver and gold, 124 silver, 41: mercury or cinnabar, 21 tin, 5 iron, 
1 lead, 10 argentiferous lead, 3 copper, 15 argentiferous copper, 5 
magistral or sulphide of copper, 1 bismuth, 7 hematite, 1 sulphur, and 
1 plastic clay; and according to the Anuario Estadistico there were, 
on the 31st of December, 1897, 550 claims registered, covering an 
area of 6,518 hectares, of which 80 were in process of development, 
and whose production amounted to 119,507,012 kilograms, valued at 
$9,026,348. 

Guanajuato is the most important mercantile center of the Repub- 
lic, both the Central and Mexican National railways deriving from 
local traffic greater profits than in any other State. Its total trade can 
be estimated at $67,000,000 per annum, divided as follows: Exports 
of minerals to Mexico City, the United States, and Europe, $20,000,000; 
exports of agricultural and other products to home States, $10,000,000; 
exports of industrial products, $2,000,000; imports from Mexico City, 
United States, and Europe, $12,000,000; imports from other Mexican 
States, $3,000,000, the balance being made up by the local trade. The 
principal exports are mineral and agricultural products, live stock 
and cotton goods, while the imports from Mexico City, and the United 
States and Europe, are groceries, ready-made clothing, textiles, hard- 
ware, drugs, arms and ammunition, hats, canned goods, agricultural 
and mining machinery, and tools; and from the Mexican States, mescal 
tequila, fruits, pulque, coflfee, etc. 

The Mexican Central Railroad traverses the State in three direc- 
tions: First, from east to northwest on the line from Mexico City to 
Ciudad Juarez or Paso del Norte (152 kilometers); second, from the 
center to the southwest on the branch line from Irapuato to Guadala- 
jara (84 kilometers); and third, from the center to the northeast on 
the branch line from Silao to Guanajuato (23 kilometers). The Mex- 
ican National Railroad runs from southeast to north on the line from 
Mexico City to Nuevo Laredo, a distance of 271 kilometers, and the 
Salamanca and Valle de Santiago Railroad has an extent of 18 to 20 
kilometers in the municipality of Salamanca. The street railways in 
the cities of the State measure about 14 kilometers. The State is 



94 MEXICO. 

crossed in all directions by good wagon roads, and there exists an 
extensive network of telegraph and telephone wires as well as an effi- 
cient postal service. 

Among the flourishing industrial establishments are 350 woolen 
mills, with a yearly output of 90,000 pieces of cloth; 45,000 yards of 
carpet and other fabrics; 853 cotton mills producing an average of 
200,500 pieces of cotton (manta), 46,600 pieces comboyos, 550,000 rebo- 
zos, and 100,000 kilograms of twine, the consumption of these factories 
being about 815,000 kilograms of wool and 1,000,000 kilograms of 
cotton annuall3^ There are besides 72 flour mills (steam and hydraulic 
power) yielding about 15,000,000 kilograms of flour per annum, lin- 
seed mills, saddleries, potteries, powder works, distilleries, tanneries, 
and foundries. 

The State is divided into 5 departments, subdivided into 31 partidos. 
The departments are: 

Allende, population 161,904 (4 partidos); its principal cities are 
San Miguel Allende, and Dolores Hidalgo, situated 71 and 6Q kilo- 
meters, respectively, from Guanajuato. 

Celaya, population 277,321 (11 partidos); its principal city bearing 
the same name, is situated at the intersection of the Mexican National 
and Mexican Central railways. It has a line of street cars 3 kilo- 
meters in length extending to the railway station. Other towns are: 
Acambaro, on the Mexican National Railway; Aspaseo, and Salva- 
tierra. 

Guanajuato, population 387,718 (9 partidos); its principal city 
bears the same name, it being also the capital of the State and con- 
taining 39,404 inhabitants. The city of Guanajuato is situated 406 
kilometers, by rail, from Mexico City; 344 from San Luis Potosi; 160 
from Queretaro; and 212 kilometers from Guadalajara. It is located 
in a narrow valley on the river Guanajuato. The principal buildings 
are the State government palace, the Palace of Congress, the mint, the 
State college, several churches, two theaters, hospitals, a bull ring, the 
market de la Reforma, the Pantheon, and the Castle of Granaditas, 
where the heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama, Jimenez, and other 
patriots were hung on iron hooks during the war of independence. 

The mineral wealth of Guanajuato has always commanded the atten- 
tion of the world. From 1812 to 1896 the combined value of gold, 
silver, and copper coined by the Guanajuato mint amounted to 
$309,077,468.25, Mexican silver, the gold coinage being estimated at 
$21,178,328; silver, $287,884,476.25, and copper, $14,664. This city 
is the commercial center of the State, and one of the most important 
in the Republic. It has a branch road connection with the Central 
Railroad, also 10 kilometers of street railways, electric lighting, and 
all modern improvements. Other leading towns are Cuitzeo de 
Abasolo, Irapuato (an important market on the Central Railroad), La 



MEXICO. 95 

Paz, Salamanca, Silao, and Valle de Santiago, situated in a fertile val- 
ley bearing the same name. 

Leon, population 142,157 (4: partidos); its two leading towns are 
Leon de los Aldamas and San Francisco del Rincon, the former 56 kilo- 
meters from Guanajuato, and one of the principal manufacturing centers 
of the Republic, and the latter situated on the Central Railroad, 

Sierra Gorda, population 93,456 (3 partidos); its principal cities 
are San Luis de la Paz, 98 kilometers from Guanajuato, San Jose de 
Iturbide, Xichu, Santa Catarina, and Victoria. 

The State of Guerrero, population 420,336, its capital Chil- 
pancingo, population 6,312, is one of the maritime States of the 
Republic. It has a promising future, but so far has been but little 
explored and has a small population, lacks communication facilities, 
and its territory is mountainous and rough. The boundaries are the 
States of Mexico and Morelos on the north; Puebla on the northeast; 
Oaxaca on the east and southeast, and the Pacific Ocean on the south- 
west. The area is given as 64,756 square kilometers. 

The Pacific coast line of the State is 500 kilometers in extent, the 
shores being low, sandy, well sheltered, and possessing excellent ports 
and harbors. Acapulco, the principal port of the State, is classed 
among the finest harbors of the world, by reason of its beautiful, well 
sheltered bay, measuring 6,285 meters in length by 3,141 in breadth, 
and having a depth of 84 meters. Other Pacific ports in the State are 
Petlacala, Sihuatanejo, and Papanoa. 

Guerrero is mountainous throughout almost its entire extent, being 
traversed by the Sierra Madre del Sur, which reaches its greatest altitude 
at 2,800 meters. The valleys between the cordilleras are narrow, and the 
highest peaks are Tlacotepec and Tiotepec, 2,800 meters high, and 
Escalera, 2,521 meters in height. The rivers of the State, on account 
of the broken surface of the territory, have very rapid currents. The 
principal is the Mexcala or Balsas, also known as the Atoyac or Po- 
blano. Its headwaters are in the Tlaxco Mountains of the State of 
Tlaxcala, whence it enters Guerrero on the east, dividing the State 
into two sections, the southern occupied by the Sierra Madre range 
and the northern by the slopes of the mountain chains from the States 
of Mexico and Morelos. The river is 687 kilometers in length, but is 
navigable for small craft only. All the waters of the State are tribu- 
tary to it. The principal lakes are Pazahualco, Chantengo, Nexpa, 
and San Marcos. 

Climatic conditions vary according to the altitude of the districts, 
the cold belt beginning beyond 2,000 meters, the temperate lying 
between 1,000 and 2,000 meters, and the hot lands situated below the 
1,000 meters. On the coasts the heat is excessive, from 35° to 36° 
C. (95° to 96°. 80 F.), and the rain falls in torrents, precipitation being 
moderate in the temperate lands only. Frosts are frequent in the 



96 MEXICO. 

high altitudes of the Sierras. Fevers, leprosy, and affections of the 
respiratory and digestive organs are the prevailing diseases. 

The fauna of the State, though rich and varied, is not well known. 
It embraces over 55 species of mammals, over 80 birds, 50 reptiles, 5 
batrachians, 40 fishes, and numberless insects. The flora is worthy of 
note, comprising over 150 trees, 75 fruits, 33 textile plants, 17 tan- 
ning plants, 15 oleaginous, 25 dye, 10 forage, and an equal number 
of poisonous plants, 20 aromatic plants, about 40 gums and resins, 
200 medicinal plants, and countless ornamental shrubs and flowers. 

The development of the immense agricultural wealth of the State 
only awaits the establishment of railroad facilities, immigration, and 
better wagon roads, when the cultivation of cotton, coffee, tobacco, 
rubber, vanilla, etc., may be advantageously undertaken on a large 
scale. The agricultural production of the State is about $2,200,000 
per annum, the leading articles being sesame seed, cereals, legumi- 
nous plants, fruits, tobacco, vanilla, coffee, cacao, and textile 
fibers. In 1897 the number of plantations estimated as under culti- 
vation was 144, as follows: Cotton, 15; coffee, 1; sugar cane, 72; 
cereals, 25, and 31 cattle ranches,; the production of rice being calcu- 
lated at 238,027 kilograms, valued at $24,643; coijn, 925,743 hectoliters, 
at $1,527,008; sugar-cane products, 2,627,537 kilos, at $175,298; 
cotton, 4,264,000 kilos, at $235,900; tobacco, 131,100 kilos, at 
$12,004; coffee, 12,150 kilos, at $7,690, and cacao, 4,215 kilos, at 
$4,292. The value of stock may be estimated at about $3,000,000, and 
dairy industries are in process of development. 

Within the limits of the State lie one of the richest mining regions 
of the country, although as yet complete development has not been 
attained. Gold, silver, mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur, granite, and 
marble are among the principal mineral products; also very fine opals, 
of three varieties, topazes, diamonds, and, according to report, salt. 
The exploitation of these products has been greatly hampered by lack 
of communication facilities, less than two-thirds of the total number 
of mines (estimated at 1,000) being in operation. 

The commerce of Guerrero is of little importance, due to the lack 
of railways and to the paucity of the population, which circumstances 
may be accounted for on the one hand by the topography of the 
country and by the unhealthy climate on the other. Exports consist 
of minerals, live stock, cotton, fruits, and woods, sent to Mexico City; 
and of hides and skins, cotton, rice, tortoise shell, pearl conches, 
and fruits sent abroad, while the imports include all kinds of manu- 
factured products, mainly food products, hardware, dry goods, 
machinery, agricultural implements, etc. There is a maritime custom- 
house at Acapulco, its trade being approximately estimated at $500,000, 
equally divided between imports and exports. The total trade of the 
State is fixed at about $5,000,000 in round numbers. 



MEXICO. 97 

There are practically no railroads, as the Interoceanic Eailway, 
which is destined to connect the port of Acapulco on the Pacific 
with Veracruz on the Gulf, and with the national capital, is not yet 
completed, and the same is true of the Mexico Cuernavaca and. Pacific, 
and of the Michoacan and Pacific lines, which are to traverse certain 
portions of the State. There are, however, extensive telegraph and 
telephone lines, as well as an efficient mail service and some wagon 
roads, especial mention being made of a road connecting Mexico City 
and Acapulco. The port of Acapulco connects with foreign countries 
by means of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company and the "Compania 
Mexicana de Vapores del Pacifico y Golfo de California." 

The value of the manufacturing industry of the State, estimated at 
about $3,000,000 annually, is confined to the manufacture of sugar- 
cane products, mescal wine, palm oil, cotton spinning, tanning, and 
the development of apicultural products. 

The State is divided into fourteen districts, subdivided into fourteen 
municipalities. The districts are: 

La Union, population 17,735, with its chief town bearing the same 
name, situated 566 kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Mina, population 46,650, an important mining section; its principal 
town, Coyuca de Catalan, is 293 kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Alarcon, population 31,801, rich in minerals and remarkable for the 
cave of Cacahuanilpa, said to be more beautiful than the Mammoth 
Cave in the United States. The chief town is Taxco de Alarcon, 11:7 
kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Hidalgo, population 26,672; its chief town, Iguala de Iturbide, is 135 
kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Alvarez, population 37,539; chief town, Chilapa de Alvarez, 46 
kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Zaragoza, population 18,709; chief town, Huamuxtitlan, 222 kilo- 
meters from Chilpancingo, situated in a very fertile region. 

Morelos, population 36,042; chief town, Tlapa orCiudad Comonfort, 
168 kilometers from Chilpancingo, 

Abasolo, population 24,588; chief town, Ometepec, 190 kilometers 
from Chilpancingo. 

Allende, population 25,589; chief town, Ayutla de los Libres, 151 
kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Tabares, population 32,866; its chief town, Acapulco de Juarez, 
population 5,780, is an important seaport, 188 kilometers from Chil- 
pancingo and 495 kilometers from Mexico City. The bay of Acapulco 
is the most sheltered of the Mexican ports, and is capable of accom- 
modating 100 vessels of deep and 200 of lighter draft. The steamers 
of the Pacific Mail and of the Mexican International Company touch 
at Acapulco, where there is a custom-house and a beacon light. 
65lA 7 



98 MEXICO. 

Galeana, population 18,69-i; its principal town, Tecpan de Gaieana, 
located 327 kilometers from Chilpancingo 

Chilpancingo, or Bravos, population 27,631, its principal town, 
Chilpancingo de los Bravos, or Ciudad Bravos, population 6,321, the 
capital of the State, is a small but important city, 319 kilometers from 
Mexico City and 178 from the port of Acapulco. There are some fine 
buildings in the town, which is lighted by electricity. 

Guerrero, population 26,108; its principal town is Tuxtla de Guer- 
rero, 13 kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

The State of Hidalgo, population 558,769; its capital city Pachuca, 
population 40,487, is bounded on the north by the States of San Luis 
Potosi and Veracruz, on the east by Puebla, on the south by Mexico 
and Tlaxcala, and on the west by Queretaro, its area measuring 22,300 
square kilometers. 

The northern portion of the State is mountainous as compared with 
the southern, the orographic system being a continuation of the Sierra 
Madre, which receives different names in the various districts traversed, 
the principal ranges being Tulancingo, Zimapan, Jacala, Zacua- 
tilpam, Hueyutla, and Pachuca. The highest peaks are Tapetillan, 
Creston, Cerro Alto, Cresta de Gallo, Organos, and Cerro de Navajas, 
the latter being 3,212 meters in height. There are several curious 
caves in the State. The southern and western portions are generally 
flat, the principal plains being the Apan, Mexquital, Tula, and the 
valleys of Tulancingo and Agua Zarca, and the Llanura Grande. There 
are no large rivers, the principal streams being the Tula and its tribu- 
taries, the Amajague and its afiiuents, and the Metztitlan or Rio 
Grande and its branches. There are other rivers of lesser importance 
and several waterfalls, among them being the Regla cascade, whose 
waters are used by the Electric Power Company to supply motive 
power for several reduction works. The largest lake is the Metztitlan, 
which is 17 kilometers in length. Mineral springs abound. 

The climate is generally mild rather than cold on the uplands and 
plateaus, and hot or temperate according to the varying altitudes of 
the lower districts. The fauna and flora are rich and varied, resem- 
bling in general charisteristics those of the other States of the Repub- 
lic. The agricultural products consist in the main of cereals, coffee, 
sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, maguey, and leguminous vegetables. 
Mexican official statistics for 1897 give the State 208 plantations, 
divided as follows: Maguey pulque, 129; cereals, 52; sugar cane, 8; 
tobacco, 1; and 18 cattle ranches. Their production is estinlated thus: 
Cereals, to the value of $12,521,542; sugar-cane products, 2,322,657 
kilograms, valued at $100,500; rum, 8,620 hectoliters, at 1151,572; 
and maguey products to a value of $2,154,815, pulque alone amounting 
to $1,934,880. 

Mining is the most important industry, as almost every district is a 



MEXICO. 99 

mining center, the principal being Pachuca and Zimapan, the former 
containing the regions of Real del Monte, Atatonilco el Chico, Santa 
Rosa, Capula, Tepenene, and Potosi, and the latter, Cardonal, Bonanza, 
Pechuga, Jacala, La Encarnacion, San Jose del Oro, and Verdosas. 
The chief metals found are gold, in small quantities; silver, mercury, 
copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese, cinnabar, and plumbago. 
Other mineral substances are coal, marble, granite, opals, garnets, etc. 
There are in operation 36 reduction works for the treatment of the 
finer metals and 6 devoted to the smelting of iron ore. 

The railroad lines traversing the State are the "Hidalgo y del Nor- 
deste," connecting Pachuca with Mexico City (109 kilometers); the 
Mexican Central and the Mexican International, covering, in all, an 
extent of 3T1 kilometers. There is a street-car line in Pachuca, which 
is 8 kilometers in length, besides several private railways, constructed 
in connection with the working of the mines. The total length of tel- 
egraph wires is estimated at 918 kilometers, with 32 stations. There 
are also numerous telephone lines and an efficient mail service. 

The principal industries are the reduction of ores, the manufacture 
of cotton and woolen goods, and of pulque, bricks and tiles, 
matches, etc. 

Politically, the State is divided into 15 districts, subdivided into 
municipalities. The districts and their chief towns are the following: 

Atotonilco el Grande, population 27,402; chief town of the same 
name, 32 kilometers from Pachuca, the capital of the State. 

Actopam, population 46,026; chief town Actopam, 30 kilometers 
from Pachuca. 

Apan, population 15,263; chief town Apan, 72 kilometers from 
Pachuca. 

Huichapam, population 30,755, chief town of the same name, 140 
kilometers from Pachuca. 

Huejutla, population 70,264, chief town Huejutla, 192 kilometers 
from Pachuca. 

Ixmiquilpam, population 48,693, chief town of the same name, 88 
kilometers from Pachuca. 

Jacala de Ledesma, population 21,920, chief town of the same name, 
180 kilometers from Pachuca. 

Metztitlan, population 21,743, chief town Metztitlan, 76 kilometers 
from Pachuca. 

Molango, population 32,014, chief town of the same name, 116 kilo- 
meters from Pachuca. 

Pachuca, population 99,497; its chief town, Pachuca, population 
40,487, is also capital of the State. It is the principal city of Hidalgo, 
on account of its commerce, population, and mining industry. It is 
connected with Mexico City by the Hidalgo, Mexican, and Central 
railways. The city contains several fine buildings, among others the 



100 MEXICO. 

Palace of Justice, the Scientific and Literary Institute, a Meteorolog- 
ical Observatory, the School of Mining, and a public library. In the 
district of Pachuca are found the principal mining sections of the 
State. 

The other districts are Tula, population 37,631; Tulacingo, popula- 
tion 45,245; Tenango de Doria, population 21,319; Zacuatilpam, popu- 
lation 18,000; Zimapan, population 22,636, their chief towns bearing 
the names of the districts. 

The State of Mexico, population 811,618; capital the city of Toluca, 
population 23,150, is among the most important agricultural and 
industrial sections of the Republic. Its territory is not very large, 
but it is fairly well populated and embraces within its limits such val- 
leys as the Toluca Valley and the valley of Mexico, which are classed 
among the most beautiful and fertile in the world. Its boundaries 
are the State of Hidalgo on the north, Tlaxcala and Puebla on the 
east, Morelos on the south and southeast, Guerrero on the south and 
southwest, and Michoacan on the west. The Federal District, with a 
total extent of 26,071 kilometers, lies to the east of the State. 

The State occupies one of the most beautiful regions on earth. The 
northern portion is a plain, intersected by small foothills and covered 
with salt lakes and marshy lands; this is the land of the cactus and 
agave. The eastern part is occupied by the Popocatepetl range, fertile 
lands, snow-covered peaks, smoking volcanoes, and the celebrated val- 
ley of Texcoco. The center is the region of forests and mountains, 
the valley of Toluca occupying the highest plateau. The Sierra 
Nevada mountain range, with its snow-covered peak of Popocatepetl, 
the highest in the country, rising 5,100 meters above sea level, tra- 
verses the eastern section; to the north is Ixtacihuatl, 4,786 meters in 
height; and to the south runs the Ajusco range, which marks the 
limit of the valley of Mexico, its highest peak is Ajusco, 4,153 
meters high. The Sierra de Guadalupe lies north of the Federal Dis- 
trict, and to the northwest of the Ajusco range is the snow-capped 
volcano of Toluca or Xinantecatl, 4,476 meters above the level of the 
sea, in whose crater are two lakes of potable water. The valley of 
Toluca is a beautiful spot, more than 2,000 meters above sea level, 
being situated on the highest plateau of the Republic and embracing 
within its limits the Federal District and the City of Mexico, capital 
of the Republic. 

The State is divided into two hygrographic basins — the valley of 
Mexico and the basin of the Lerma River, the latter extending to the 
States of Queretaro, Michoacan, and Guanajuato. The Lerma is by 
far the most important stream of the country, traversing an extent of 
452 kilometers from its source to its mouth in the Chapala Lake. 
Next in importance is the Cuautitlan or Desagiie River; following, 
according to rank, the Tula, the Tajo de Nochistango. 



MEXICO. 101 

This valley also contains five important lakes, three of which lie 
wholly within its boundaries, viz, Zumpango, San Cristobal, and 
Xaltocan, while the Texcoco and Chalco extend into other States. 
The Lerma lagoon lies wholly within the State. 

Climatological conditions vary according to altitudes. In the valley 
of Toluca, 3,176 meters above sea level, it is exceedingly cold, while 
the valley of Mexico enjoys a temperate and healthy climate, although 
it is somewhat variable. The rainfall is uncertain — scarce at times 
and then again falling abundantly. Frost is not frequent. 

Both fauna and flora are extremely rich, embracing as many species 
as the most favored States. The principal agricultural products are 
cereals, leguminous plants, and spices. Besides these there are rice, 
coffee, sugar cane, linseed, tobacco, and the maguey plant. The total 
production varies in value from ten to twelve millions of pesos per 
annum. The latest available Mexican statistics (1897) credit the State 
with 336 haciendas, divided as follows: Sugar cane, 17; cereals, 240; 
maguey pulque, 60, and stock raising, 19. The total value of cereals 
in that year amounted to $7,437,373; sugar-cane products (direct), 
791,069 kilograms, valued at $89,680; sugar-cane rum, 4,181 hecto- 
liters, at $149,150; pulque, 1,059,338 hectoliters, at $1,784,249; 
tlachique, 2,068,186 hectoliters, at $1,854,285; coffee, 59,930 kilo- 
grams at $34,377, and tobacco, 4,294 kilograms, at $3,124. 

Stock raising is also one of the principal sources of wealth, with an 
estimated value of $17,000,000, with the following relative rank: 
Sheep, cattle, hogs, goats, horses, asses, and mules. 

Many rich mining districts are within the State, though their wealth 
is not yet fully exploited. Gold, silver, and lead are the principal 
metals. On December 31, 1897, there were registered 218 claims, 
covering 2,585 hectares, and 33 mining plants, of which 11 were being 
worked. 

Annual trade may be safely estimated at about seven to eight mil- 
lions of pesos, the principal commercial centers being Toluca, Tenan- 
cingo, Cuantitlan, Chalco, and Amecameca, most of the products going 
to Mexico City. 

The principal railway lines traversing the State are the Mexican 
National, the International, and the Interoceanic. The line from 
Mexico to Salto has an extent of 44 kilometers, the Mexico and Vera- 
cruz 60 kilometers, and the Central QQ kilometers. The Interoceanic 
has two tracks, one from Mexico to Veracruz, and one from Morelos 
to Acapulco, the first 69 kilometers in length and the latter 86 kilo- 
meters. The several street railways measure 39 kilometers in length. 
Telegraph, telephone, and mail communications are eflicient, there 
being over 300,000 meters of telegraph wires, 800,000 of telephone, 
.and 23 post offices. The State is crossed in all directions by wagon 
roads. 



102 MEXICO. 

The leading industries are the manufacture of cotton and woolen 
goods, bricks, cheese and butter, wines, glassware, wheat, flour, sugar, 
alcohol, potter3% and pulque. 

Politically, the divisions are into 16 districts, subdivided into munici- 
palities. The districts are: 

Jilotepec de Abasolo, population 64,024, its chief town, Jilotepec, 
39 kilometers from Toluca, the capital of the State. 

Cuautitlan, population 32,162, with a chief town, bearing the same 
name, 109 kilometers from Toluca. 

Zumpaugo de Victoria, population 29,758; its chief town, Zumpango 
de la Laguna, is 122 kilometers from Toluca. 

Otumba de Morelos, population 34,613, the chief town of which, 
Otumba de Gomez Farias, is 114 kilometers from Toluca. 

Texcoco de Mora, population 57,070, the chief town of which, Tex- 
coco, near a lake of the same name, is a fine town containing several 
manufacturing establishments and the repair shops of the Interoceanic 
Railroad. 

Chalco de Diaz Covarrabia, population 66,422; its chief town, Chalco, 
is quite a commercial center, a line of tramways running between it 
and Tlalmanaco, 21 kilometers in length. 

Ixtlahuaca de Rayon, population 74,934; its chief town bears the 
same name, and is situated 78 kilometers from Toluca. 

Valle de Bravo, population 43,742, the chief town of which bears the 
same name, and is situated 55 kilometers from Toluca. 

Toluca de Lerdo, population 114,490; its chief town, Toluca, popu- 
lation 23,150, is also the State capital, and is a very beautiful city, con- 
taining many fine public buildings, breweries, ice factories, cotton mills, 
oil and flour mills. It is the principal commercial town in the State, 
and is situated 73 kilometers from Mexico City (by rail two hours and 
fifty minutes), 497 kilometers from Veracruz, and is connected by rail 
with the principal cities of the Republic and of the United States. 

Tenango de Arista, population 65,441 ; its chief town, of the same 
name, 25 kilometers from the capital of the State, has cotton, oil, and 
flour mills. 

Lerma, population 45,483; its chief town, Lerma, is 13 kilometers 
distant from Toluca. 

Tlalnepantla de Comonfort, population 57,401; its chief town, Tlalne- 
pantla, is 12 kilometers from Mexico City, with which it is connected 
by rail, and 77 kilometers from Toluca. 

Tenancingo de Degollado, population 63,792; its chief town, Ten- 
ancingo, is an important commercial town 46 kilometers from Toluca. 

Temascaltepec, population 39,472; its chief town, bearing the same 
name, is 25 kilometers from the capital of the State. 

Sultepec de Alquisiras, population 52,814; its chief town, Sultepec, 
is 67 kilometers from Toluca. 

The State of Michoacan de Ocampo, population 894,763; its capital, 



MEXICO. 103 

Morelia, population 33,890, is one of the richest and most beautiful 
regions of the Republic. Its boundaries are Guanajuato on the north, 
Mexico and Queretaro on the northeast, Guerrero and Colima on the 
southeast, Jalisco on the west, and the Pacific Ocean on the south. 
The State measures 66,693 square kilometers. 

The general character of the State is mountainous, and it is immensely 
rich in vegetation. The coast line, which is generally low, measures 
163 kilometers in extent. The Sierra Madre Mountains traverse the 
State, sloping down, in the southern part, to the basin of the Balsas 
River, and continuing their course on the farther bank of the river 
as the Sierra Coalcoman. Other ranges are Ozumatlan, Tajimaroa, 
Zitacuaro, Angangisco, and Tlalpujahua. The highest peaks are Tam- 
titado, 386 meters; Patamban, 3,750; Chinceo, 3,321; Tarimangacho; 
3,101; Zirate, 3,310; San Andres, 3,282; the volcano of Jorullo, 1,299, 
and several others of lesser importance. 

The principal rivers are the Lerma, which irrigates the upper 
region of the State, running east and west, and, after receiving the 
waters of several affluents, finally empties into Lake Chapala; the 
Duero, flowing from southwest to northwest, and the Balsas, called 
also Zacatula and Atoyac, which flows from east to west, and has sev- 
eral tributaries. The Lake of Chapala, 1,580 square kilometers in 
extent, is on the Jalisco boundary, one-sixth of it belonging to the 
State of Michoacan. In the same region are the lagoons of Tacas- 
cuaro and Magdalena. The Lake of Patzcuaro, 36,090 meters long 
and 31,608 in breadth, contains five small islands, three of which are 
inhabited. Other bodies of water lying within the State limits are 
Lake Cuitzeo, the lagoon of Zirahuen, and of Zipimeo. 

All varieties of climate are found in the State, the cold in the high 
altitudes being most intense, while the northern portion is temperate 
and healthy, the heat increasing toward the south, where fevers are 
prevalent. 

The fauna of the State is rich and varied, the different species equaling 
in number those of other portions of the Republic. The same is true 
in regard to the flora. The principal agricultural products are cereals, 
canary seed, sesame and linseed, coffee, vanilla, rubber, tobacco, sugar 
cane, fruits of all kinds, and cabinet woods. Production, according 
to official data, was as follows in 1897: Number of plantations, 381, 
of which 1 was devoted to the cultivation of cotton, 1 to indigo, 
12 to coffee, 82 to sugar cane, 202 to cereals; and 72 cattle ranches; 
the total yield of cereals being estimated at $6,966,111; sugar-cane 
products, 18,704,151 kilograms, valued at $1,911,031; coffee, 363,401 
kilograms at $210,457. The annual valuation of agricultural products 
varies from 14,000,000 to 16,000,000 pesos. The stock value of the 
State is calculated at about $9,500,000, in the following order: Beef 
cattle, sheep, horses, hogs, goats, mules, and asses. 

Michoacan is one of the richest mining sections of Mexico, gold, 



104 MEXICO. 

silver, copper, iron, cinnabar, lead, sulphur, copperas, marble, granite, 
and coal being among the minerals found in abundance. The number 
of registered claims on December 31, 1897, amounted to 221, cover- 
ing an area of 2,196 hectares. 

Commerce is one of the leading industries, the principal articles of 
trade being cereals, exported to the neighboring States of Guanajuato, 
San Luis Potosi, Queretaro, and to Mexico City; coffee to Germany 
and the United States, and Mexico City; fruits to the United States 
and to Queretaro and Guanajuato. Foreign trade is carried on through 
the ports of Veracruz and Manzanillo, and the frontier customs ports 
of Paso del Norte and Nuevo Laredo. The total trade of the State 
may be estimated at about $25,000,000. The gold and silver mined is 
sent to the mint at Mexico for coinage. 

The line of the Mexican National Railroad, from Patzcuaro to the 
City of Mexico, traverses the State for an extent of 439 kilometers. 
It is also crossed by the Mexican Central, and concessions have been 
granted for two other roads. Three street-car lines are in operation, 
while there are good telegraph, telephone, and mail facilities, and some 
very good wagon roads. A steel steamboat navigates Patzcuaro Lake. 

The manufacturing industries are confined mainly to the production 
of cotton and silk shawls, cotton and woolen goods, palm hats, lace and 
embroideries, sugar-cane products, pulque mescal, cheese, wax matches, 
and beer. Sericulture and the culture of olive trees and grapevines 
are being introduced. 

The State is divided into 15 districts, subdivided into 75 municipali- 
ties, the districts being as follows: 

Piedad, population 61,876; its chief town, Piedad Cabados, is an 
important one, situated near the station of the Central Eailway, 181 
kilometers from Morelia, the capital of the State. 

Puruandiro, population 90,455; its chief town, Puruandiro de Cal- 
deron, is the third city in the State from an industrial and commercial 
standpoint, is 86 kilometers from Morelia. 

Morelia, population 128,894; its chief town, bearing the same name, 
is also the capital of the State, with 33,890 inhabitants. It has 
a number of fine public buildings, an aqueduct, several factories, a 
public library, and a museum. It is situated on a picturesque hill, 
about 377 kilometers from Mexico City, and has tramway lines con- 
necting it with the station of the Central Railway. 

Zinapecuaro, population 49,367; its chief town, Zinapecuaro de 
Figueroa, is 54 kilometers from Morelia and 7 from Huingo station, on 
the Mexican National Railroad. 

Maravatio, population 51,090; its chief town, bearing the same 
name, is 154 kilometers from Morelia. 

Zitacuaro, population 65,928; its chief town, Zitacuaro de la Inde- 
pendencia, is 155 kilometers from Morelia on the line of the Micho- 
acan road. 



MEXICO. 105 

Huetamo, population 46,848; its chief town, Huetamo de Nunez, is 
262 kilometers from Morelia. 

Tacambaro, population 40,188; its chief town, Tacambaro de Coda- 
Uos, is 93 kilometers from Morelia. 

Ario de Rosales, population 39,992; its chief town, bearing the same 
name, is 88 kilometers from Morelia. 

Apatzingan, population 26,627; its chief town, Apatzingan de la 
Constitucion, is 241 kilometers from Morelia. 

Coalcoman, population 16,008; its chief town, bearing the same 
name, is 423 kilometers from Morelia. 

Uruapan, population 81,228; its chief town, Uruapan del Progreso, 
is 126 kilometers from Morelia. The coffee from this district is valued 
very highl}^ both in the Republic and abroad. The production is, how- 
ever, very small. 

Jiquilapan, population 67,176; its chief town, bearing the same 
name, is 245 kilometers from Morelia. 

Zamora, population 88,366; its chief town, bearing the same name, 
is 128 kilometers from Morelia. 

Pazcuaro, population 62,710; its chief town of the same name lies 
near the beautiful lake of Pazcuaro, 62 kilometers from Morelia. 

The State of Morelos, population 169,356, capital Cuernavaca, 
with a population of 8,747, is a small but rich and progressive State, 
whose boundaries are the Federal District to the north; the State of 
Mexico on the west, northwest and northeast; Puebla on the east and 
southeast, and Guerrero on the south and southeast. Its area is 4,768 
square kilometers. 

The topographical conditions are varied, embracing high mountain 
ranges, snow-capped volcanoes, beautiful valleys, and deep ravines. 
The northern part is the mountainous section. There rises the lofty 
Sierra de Ajusco, while the Huitzilac, Tepoctlan, and Santo Domingo 
ranges extend from west to east until they meet the Tlayacapan moun- 
tains. The highest peaks in these ranges are Yepac, Ololuica, and 
Ocotecatl. In the northeast are the Popocatepetl and the Ixtacihuatl 
ranges, while other mountain chains cross the State in all directions. 

The State may be said to belong to the basin of the Amacusac River, 
which traverses it from west to east. This river is formed by the 
junction of the San Jeronimo and Chontalcuallan and receives a large 
number of tributary streams, among them the Chalma, Alpuyeca, 
Tepalcapa, Yautepec, Jojutla, Tlaquiltenango, and Cuautla rivers. The 
principal lake is Lake Tequesquiten, which occupies the site of the 
old town bearing the same name, and which, by reason of a subsid- 
ence of the ground, due to frequent inundations, was engulfed about 
half a century ago by the waters used in irrigating the land. The 
church spire may yet be seen in the middle of the lake. Others are 
the Miacatlan and Hueyapan lakes. Mineral hot springs abound. 



106 MEXICO. 

The climate is hot and unhealthy in the southern and central regions, 
extremel}^ cold in the northern or mountainous portions, and temper- 
ate on the mountain slopes. Rainfall is moderate throughout the 
territorj^ with the exception of the slopes of the northern mountains, 
where it is verj'^ abundant. Frosts are of infrequent occurrence. The 
prevailing diseases are malarial and typhus fevers and affections of 
the respiratory and digestive organs. 

Both fauna and flora are rich and varied, embracing the same species 
indigenous to other States of the Republic. 

From an agricultural standpoint, Morelos is one of the richest 
States in Mexico. The principal products are sugar cane, rice, corn, 
coffee, wheat, and garden vegetables. The first cane plantation and 
sugar mill in Mexico was established by Cortes in Tlaltenango, and 
since that time its culture has advanced steadil}^ and continuously, it 
being now the leading article of production of the State of Morelos. 
Rice yields at the rate of 200 kilograms for 1 kilogram of seed; corn, 
100 to 200 hectoliters for 1 hectoliter sown, and other products render 
adequate returns for their culture. In 1897, according to official fig- 
ures, the State's production was estimated as follows: Rice, 3,730,076 
kilograms, at 1381,592; corn, 272,185 hectoliters, at $609,197; wheat, 
50,000 kilograms, at more than $3,000; sugar-cane products (direct), 
61,052,153 kilograms, valued at $5,821,113; rum, 62,366 hectoliters, 
at $1,130,175; mescal to the value of $122,222. The annual value of 
fruit products may be estimated at $1,250,000, and of leguminous 
plants, $70,000. The extent of coffee culture is indicated by the fact 
that a few years ago 1,000,000 trees were planted. Stock raising does 
not receive much attention, the total value of all kinds, including beef 
cattle, sheep, and goats, being $1,250,000. Mining occupies an infe- 
rior position among the industries of the State, although within its 
territory are found silver, galena, marble, alabaster, cinnabar, iron, 
gold, lead, petroleum, and coal. 

Morelos is an important mercantile center, not onl}^ on account of 
its proximity to the Federal District, but also by reason of its immense 
sugar-cane interests. The Interoceanic Railroad does not suffice for 
the traffic in these products, the supplementary use of mule paths 
being also found requisite for their conveyance to Mexico City. About 
$3,000,000 is the calculated annual export value of cane products such 
as sugar, rum, and molasses. Fruit exports figure at about $1,000,000, 
and other products, including corn, coffee, mescal, etc., about $100,000. 
Imports may be estimated at about $2,000,000, and include alimentary 
products, furniture, clothing, books, implements, arms and ammuni- 
tions, and hardware. 

The Interoceanic Railway traverses the State from northeast to 
southwest, having seven stations in its extent of 76 kilometers. A 
concession has recently been granted for a line between Toluca and 
Cuernavaca, and there is a prospect for the Vallej^ Railway being 



MEXICO. 107 

extended to the latter city. Good wagon roads exist and telegraph, 
telephone, and mail service is efficient. 

The manufacturing industries, in addition to the development of 
cane products, include the preparation of mescal, and the manufacture 
of beer, flour, chocolate, oils, cigars, bricks, tiles, hair bridles and 
halters, ixtle bags, and cotton goods. Pottery works and tanneries 
also make good returns. 

The State of Morelos is divided into 6 districts, subdivided into 26 
municipalities, as follows: 

Cuernavaca, population 40,014; its chief town, bearing the same 
name, is also the capital of the State, on the river Tepeyte, 76 kilo- 
meters from the City of Mexico. It is an important commercial 
center, possessing very fine public buildings, among others the Palace 
of Cortes, where the State Legislature meets, a Meteorological Observ- 
atory, and the public library. The population of the capital numbers 
about 8,747 inhabitants. 

Yautepec, population 20,277; its chief town, Yautepec de Zaragoza, 
is 25 kilometers from Cuernavaca and 161 kilometers from the City 
of Mexico, with which it is connected by the Interoceanic Railway. 

Morelos, population 27,916; its chief town, Cuautla Morelos, is 44 
kilometers from Cuernavaca, and is connected with the capital of the 
Republic by rail. 

Jonacatepec, population 26,431; its chief town, Jonacatepec de Lean- 
dro Valle, is 74 kilometers from Cuernavaca. 

Juarez, population 20,476; its chief town, Jojutla de Juarez, is 50 
kilometers from Cuernavaca, and is connected with the City of Mexico 
by rail. 

Tetecala, population 24,241; its chief town, Tetecala de la Reforma, 
is 48 kilometers from Cuernavaca. 

The State of Nuevo Leon, population 309,252; its capital city is 
Monterey, population 45,695, occupying a very fertile and well-watered 
region, abounding in minerals. The boundaries are Coahuila on the 
north, northwest, and west; San Luis Potosi on the south and south- 
west, and Tamaulipas on the northeast, east, and southeast. Its area 
is 107,233 square kilometers. 

Nuevo Leon occupies the eastern slope of the central plateau, 
extending in a northeasterly direction. The Sierra Madre Mountains 
traverse the State at a mean elevation of 1,676 meters above sea level 
for a distance of 252 kilometers. Among its numerous peaks, the 
Potosi is the principal, its summit being covered with snow during 
part of the summer. These mountains come to an abrupt end in the 
northern part of the State; here another chain starts whose highest 
peaks are known as the Silla, Mitra, Topo, and Salinas. At the latter 
point the chain is bifurcated forming two new ranges, viz, the Sierra 
de Gomas on the north and the Sierra de Picachos on the south. 

Twelve rivers and 100 smaller streams irrigate the State besides 



108 MEXICO. 

numberless brooks. None of these water courses, however, are navi- 
gable. The principal river is the Salado, its waters abounding in 
fishes and fine pearl oysters. It receives the waters of many tribu- 
taries and flows from west to east emptying in the Rio Bravo. The 
Santa Catarina, the Ramos, the Pilon, the Rio Grande de San Juan, the 
Potosi, the Hualahuises, and Pablillo rivers follow in the order men- 
tioned. There are also two lagoons and several hot springs, but no 
lakes. 

The climate varies according to the altitude, but it is generally tem- 
perate and healthy, the extreme of heat being found in the north and 
east where the land is low, while on the high lands of the south a 
moderate temperature prevails, varying in the Sierra Madre Moun- 
tains according to the altitude. The rainfall is variable, and winds 
come in general from the east and northeast. 

The fauna and flora of the State possess the same qualities and extent 
as other Mexican States. 

Agriculture has been steadily progressing, rising in value from 
$717,4:50 in 1872 to $5,000,000 in 1899. The latest Mexican statistical 
annual (1897) credits the State with 328 plantations, 226 of which are 
devoted to the cultivation of sugar cane and 82 to cereals, and 20 cattle 
ranches. Production is estimated as follows: Barley, $34,492; corn, 
$1,521,416; wheat, $143,542; sugar-cane products, 16,287,263 kilo- 
grams, valued at $1,194,031; mescal, 6,452 hectoliters, for $146,291; 
ixtle, 1,150,442 kilograms at $70,295. The value of stock in the State 
is estimated at $6,000,000, the different varieties classed as follows: 
Goats, sheep, beef cattle, horses, hogs, asses, and mules. 

The mineral wealth of the land has been very slightly developed, 
although there exist mines of iron, copper, silver, lead, coal, sulphur, 
marble, etc. On the 31st of December, 1897, the number of regis- 
tered claims was 150, covering an area of 1,278 hectares. 

Among the exports may be mentioned shipments of cattle to Texas 
(United States) and to some Mexican States, also agricultural products 
and a small quantity of cotton and woolen goods. The mercantile 
movement may be estimated at about $15,000,000 per annum. 
Imports include clothing, textile fabrics, hardware, drugs, paper, 
wines and liquors, coffee, tea, machinery, implements, arms, etc., 
estimated at a value of about $8,000,000 per annum. 

The Mexican National Railroad crosses the State from west to north- 
east, having 31 stations in its course of 280 kilometers. The Monterey 
and Gulf of Mexico road crosses it from west to south on its way to 
the State of Tamaulipas. A branch of the Mexican National, from Mata- 
moros to Monterey is in process of construction. There are 20 kilome- 
ters of tramways, all starting from Monterey, also fine wagon roads 
in all directions. Telegraph, telephone, and mail service is efficient. 

In addition to the manufacturing industries connected with the 
sugar interests, there are three large cotton mills, also one for the 



MEXICO. 109 

manufacture of cloth and cassimeres, and several chocolate, rope, beer, 
and match establishments. 

Nuevo Leon is divided into 48 municipalities, grouped as follows: 
Municipalities of the north, 17; of the east, 14; of the south, 13; of 
the west, 3, and of the center, 1. 

The principal cities of the municipalities are: 

Northern group: ^ Lampazos de Naranjo, population 7,905, on the 
Mexican National Railway, 154 kilometers from Monterey; Villal- 
dama, population 5,629, on the same road, 94 kilometers from Monte- 
rey; Marin, population 3,092, and Sabinas Hidalgo, population 7,005. 

Eastern group: Cadereyta Jimenez, population 17,023, on the Mon- 
terey and Gulf Line, 42 kilometers from the capital of the State, and 
Cerralvo, population 6,678, 125 kilometers from Monterey. 

Southern group: Santiago, 11,007 population, 42 kilometers from 
Monterey; Montemorelos, population 16,636, on the Monterey and 
Gulf Line, 96 kilometers from the capital; Linares, population 20,204, 
the second city in the State, 180 kilometers from Monterey, and Doctor 
Arroyo, 21,169 population, 302 kilometers from Monterey. 

Western group: Garcia, population 4,575, which is the only large 
town in this section, situated on the Mexican National Line, 37 kilo- 
meters from Monterey. This portion of the State contains two large 
cotton mills, one at Garza Garcia, with 17,740 spindles and 72 looms, 
producing from 15,000 to 20,000 pieces per annum, and another at 
Santa Catarina, population 4,625, whose output is estimated at 16,000 
pieces. 

Central municipality, or the municipality of Monterey, population 
56,326, contains the capital of the State, Monterey, with 45,695 inhab- 
itants, situated 975 kilometers from the City of Mexico by wagon road 
and 1,079 by the Mexican National Line. Monterey is a handsome city, 
possessing very fine public buildings and all the conveniences of 
civilization. It is the first commercial city of the northern Mexican 
frontier and is connected by rail with the principal cities of Mexico 
and the United States. Among its industrial establishments are a 
blanket and cassimere factory, breweries, ice factories, foundries, saw- 
mills, flour mills, chocolate, match, wagon, and carriage factories. 
There are three tramways, measuring 13 kilometers in length, that 
cross the city. 

The State of Oaxaca de Juarez, population 884,909, capital city 
Oaxaca, population 32,437, is one of the most important sections 
of the Eepublic. Its boundaries are the States of Puebla and Vera- 
cruz on the north, Veracruz and a portion of Chiapas on the north- 
east and east, Chiapas and the Pacific Ocean on the south, and the State 
of Guerrero on the west and northwest. Its area is 91,664 square 
kilometers. 

^Only towns of 3,000 inhabitants or over are mentioned. 



110 MEXICO. 

It occupies a beautiful and fertile region, irrigated by a number of 
rivers and lesser streams which traverse the numerous valley's. The 
Sierra Madre Mountains cross the whole State, their ramifications 
extending throughout the territory, and forming such valleys as the 
Nochitlan or Mixteco, 2,111 meters above sea level. The maritime 
range, called Sierra del Sur, is composed of high mountains whose 
slopes are covered by virgin forests. The Zempoaltepec, 3,397 meters 
in height, is the starting point of the several ramifications of the 
Sierra Madre. The beautiful valle}^ of Oaxaca or Antequera occupies the 
greater part of the central region, the San Felipe del Agua peak, 3,125 
meters above sea level, representing its highest altitude. Other moun- 
tain tops vary in height from 1,300 to 2,275 meters. The Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec is traversed by the Tarifa and Chimalpa mountains. 

Oaxaca, being one of the maritime States of Mexico bordering on 
the Pacific Ocean, has a coast line of 530 kilometers. These shores 
are low and sandy. The natural ports are Chacahua, Puerto Escon- 
dido, Puerto Angel, San Augustin Huatules, San Diego, La Ventosa, 
and Salina Cruz, the latter being the starting point of the interna- 
tional railroad that is to connect the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of 
Mexico. Salina Cruz is an open port with a deep harbor where the 
largest vessels may safely anchor. Puerto Angel is a sheltered port, 
quite deep, but too narrow to permit the passage of large vessels. 
These are the only ports open to foreign and coastwise traffic. There 
are numberless bays, bars, roads, and a few islands. The Gulf of 
Tehuantepec is one of the most important in the Republic, being about 
210 kilometers in length from east-southeast to west-northwest, and 
65 kilometers from north to south, and affording numerous ports, 
road, harbors, and places of anchorage. 

Most of the streams irrigating the State can not be properly called 
rivers on account of their short courses. The principal ones, all 
draining into the Pacific, are: The Atoyac, 293 kilometers in length, 
receiving the waters of numerous tributaries; the Tehuantepec, which, 
with its numerous tributaries, traverses an extent of 291 kilometers, 
and the Arena, or Pinotepa, the Tonameca, and Copalita. The princi- 
pal lakes are the Superior and the Inferior, both in the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec, Alotengo, and Chacahua, all communicating with the 
Pacific Ocean. 

The climate is generally hot and unhealthy on the seacoast and low- 
lands adjacent to the State of Veracruz; temperate in the Valley of 
Oaxaca and on the mountain slopes, and cold in the higher altitudes 
and throughout almost the whole region of the Mixteca Alta. Rain- 
fall is moderate in the State and frosts are of infrequent occurrence. 
Fevers and affections of the digestive organs are most prevalent, yel- 
low fever occurring principally on the coast. 



MEXICO. Ill 

The fauna and flora of the State present the same general features 
as in the other parts of the Republic. 

The principal agricultural products are cereals, sugar cane, cotton, 
coffee, and tobacco. Official figures estimate the number of plantations 
at 199, classified as follows: Coffee, 41; sugar cane, 75; cereals, 60; 
maguey mescal, 9; tobacco, 7; and 7 cattle ranges. The production 
of cereals, corn, and wheat was estimated, in 1897, as having a value 
of $1,949,663; sugar-cane products (direct), 12,711,128 kilograms, 
valued at $999,403; rum, 21,147 hectoliters, at $268,359; mescal, 
$172,623; other maguey liquors, $103,708; coffee, 2,770,305 kilograms, 
at $1,249,176, and tobacco, 3,193,518 kilograms, at $1,828,642. The 
yearly agricultural production of the State maj^ be estimated at about 
$15,000,000. 

Stock raising represents a value of about $4,000,000, the leading 
species being sheep, goats, beef cattle, hogs, and horses. 

From a mining standpoint Oaxaca is immensely rich, but so far its 
wealth has not been properly exploited. The principal minerals found 
are silver, gold, iron, lead, coal, marble, and salt. 

The State maintains an active trade with the States of Veracruz, 
Puebla, and Chiapas, and sends its coffee, hides, cochineal, flour, sugar, 
minerals, indigo, oils, tobacco, and other products both abroad and to 
other parts of the Republic. The list of foreign imports embraces 
about 200 articles, the principal being machinery, agricultural imple- 
ments, hardware, canned goods, beer, wines and liquors, cotton, 
woolen and silk goods, etc. 

The ports of Salina Cruz and Puerto Angel are maritime customs 
ports, their trade is estimated at about $700,000 per annum, their 
exports being almost double the imports. The entire trade of the 
State is calculated at from 16,000,000 to 18,000,000 pesos. 

The Southern Mexican Railroad runs from Puebla to Oaxaca on its 
wa}^ to the Guatemalan frontier, with a branch line to Puerto Angel. 
The Interoceanic runs from Salina Cruz on the Pacific to Coatzocoalcos, 
on the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 304 kilometers. The city of 
Oaxaca contains good tramwa3^s. The State is also in communication 
with the adjacent States by means of high roads, telegraph, and mail 
routes, there being also an efficient telephone service. Maritime com- 
munication by the ports of Salina Cruz and Puerto Angel is carried on 
by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, the Hamburg- American Line, 
and the Mexican Line " Pacific and Gulf of California." There is also 
a line of steamers, owned by a Mexican company, navigating the 
river Papaloapam, and plying between Tlacotalpam (Veracruz) and 
Tuxtepec. 

The industries of the State are agriculture and the extraction of the 
maguey fiber, called j)ita de Oaxaca^ as well as the manufacture of 



112 MEXICO. 

woolen and cotton fabrics, furniture, pottery, candles, soap, matches, 
chocolate, and tobacco. 

The State is divided into 26 districts, sul)divided into 463 munici- 
palities, which according to their geographical position are grouped 
as follows: 

Northern: Silaca3'oapara, population, 27,360; Huajuapam, 44,811; 
Teposcolula, 31,081; Coixtlahuaca, 16,924; Tcotitlan, 35,576; Cuicatlan, 
22,142, and Tuxtepec, 30,717, their principal towns being Silacayoa- 
pani, 277 kilometers from Oaxaca; Huajapan de Leon, 202 kilometers 
from Oaxaca; Coixtlahuaca, or Villa do Libres, 120 kilometers from 
the capital of the State, and Tuxtepec, 260 kilometers from Oaxaca. 

Eastern: Villa Alta, population 40,150; Choapam, 11,763; Tehuante- 
pec, 31,757, and Yautepec, 24,134; the principal towns being Villa 
Alta, Choapam Santiago, Yautepec, and Tehuantepec, population 
9,415, the latter being the second city in the state, on the line 
of the Isthmian Interoceanic road, 294 kilometers from Oaxaca and 21 
from the port of Salina Cruz, and is a fine, progressive town. 

Southern: Juchitan, population 44,966; Miahuatlan, 40,963; Pochu- 
tla, 20,807; Juquila, 21,662, and Jamiltepec, 44,994, their principal cities 
being Juchitan, or Ciudad de Zaragoza, near the Interoceanic road; 
Miahuatlan, Pochutla, near Puerto Angel; Juquila, and Jamiltepec. 

Western: Tlaxiaco, population 64,617, and Juxtlahuaca, 20,265, 
with their principal towns Heroica Tlaxiaco, an important industrial 
town, and Juxtlahuaca or Villa Albino Zertuche. 

Central: Centro, population 66,381; Nochixtlan, 41,300; Villa Alva- 
rez, 45,699; Ejutla, 24,121; Tlacolula, 41,417, and Ocotlan, 33,575, the 
chief town of which is Oaxaca de Juarez, situated in the Centro district 
and capital of the State, with 32,437 inhabitants. It is 464 kilo- 
meters from Mexico City, 340 from Puebla, and 464 from Veracruz. 
This is one of the handsomest and most advanced cities in the Repub- 
lic, containing fine public buildings, tramways, and equipped with all 
modern conveniences. It is also the leading industrial and commer- 
cial center of the State. Other towns are Etla de Santiago, Nochix- 
tlan Asuncion, Villa Alvarez or Zimatlan, Heroica Ejutla Crespo, 
Tlacolula de Matamoros, and Villa de Morelos or Ocotlan de Santo 
Domingo^ 

The State of Puebla, population 984,413, with its capital city bearing 
the same name, is bounded on the north and east by Veracruz, on the 
south by Oaxaca and Guerrero, and on the west by Morelos, Mexico, 
and Hidalgo, its area being 34,380 square kilometers. The general 
topographical aspect is mountainous, the principal peaks being Popo- 
catepetl and Ixtatzihuatl, the volcanoes of San Andres and Perote, and 
the mountain ranges Huanchinango, Zacatlan, Zacapoaxtle, Tezuitlan, 
and Mixtecas. The most important plains are San Juan de los Llanos, 
Chalchicomula, Tecamachalco, Tepeaca, Tepeji, and the principal 



MEXICO. 113 

valleys those of Texuclucan, Atlixco and Puebla. Among the rivers 
may be named the Atoyac and its tributaries, the Vinasco, Pantepec, 
Cazones, Zempoala, and Mecaxa, the latter forming, in the district of 
Huauchinango, a beautiful cascade 162 meters high. There are four 
lakes, called Quecholac, Tlachichica, Epatlan, and Tepehuayo. 

The climate shows varying degrees of temperature, being temperate 
on the plains, hot in the south, and cold in the northern districts. 

The fauna and flora present the same general characteristics peculiar 
to other States of the Republic. 

Agriculture is the leading industry, the chief products being cereals, 
sugar cane, coffee, vanilla, and delicious fruits of all kinds. Official 
figures credit the State with 483 plantations, divided as follows: Three 
hundred and twenty-eight devoted to cereals, 67 to sugar cane, 26 to 
maguey pulque, 14 to coffee, 6 to tobacco, and 42 to cattle raising. 
The production for 1897 is given as $8,746,999 for cereals; sugar-cane 
products (direct), 6,801,718 kilograms, valued at $786,307; rum, 
$5,185,675; maguey products, $543,298; coffee, $503,338, and tobacco, 
147,959. 

The principal minerals found are gold, silver, and copper, marble 
also existing in large quantities. 

The commerce of the State is characterized by the same features as 
that of other States of the Republic, the exports consisting principally 
of agricultural products, and the imports of manufactured articles of 
common utility. 

In addition to several wagon roads, the means of intercommunication 
in the State consist of a branch line of the Mexican Railroad from 
Puebla to Apizaco; the Interoceanic, connecting the State capital with 
the city of Mexico, and the Matamoros line. 

Telegraph, telephone, and mail services are efficient. 

The manufacturing industries are similar in the main to those of 
the other Mexican States. 

The State is divided into 21 districts, subdivided into municipalities. 
Geographically the districts may be grouped as follows: 

Northern group: Embracing Alatriste, population 30,294; Huauchi- 
nango, 66,938; Tetela, 33,942; Tezuitlan, 26,398; Tlatlauquitepec, 
21,392; Zacapoaxtla, 31,210, and Zacatlan, 63,665, their principal 
cities are Chiguanapam, Huauchinango, Xicotepec, Tetela, Tequitlan, 
Tlatlanqui, Zacapaxtle, and Zacatlan. 

Central group: Atlixco, population 49,275; Cholula, 48,093; Huejot- 
zingo, 42,422; San Juan de los Llanos, 32,102; Chalchicomula, 67,429; 
Puebla, 100,993; Tecali, 29,970, and Tepeaca, 43,159, the principal 
towns are Atlixco, which is an important town on the Matamoros 
and Puebla Railroad, containing some fine public buildings, cotton 
mills, and other industrial establishments; San Pedro Cholutla, Hue- 
jotzingo, on the Interoceanic line; San Pedro de los Llanos, on the 
65lA 8 



114 MEXICO. 

same line; San Andres Chalchiconmla, on the Mexican Railway; Tecali, 
Tepecaca, and Puebla, the capital, containing 88,684 inhabitants. This 
latter is one of the oldest and most important cities of the State, pos- 
sessing many handsome buildings, among others the Cathedral and 
several churches, the State college, containing over 24,000 volumes; 
the Palace of Justice, the School of Medicine, and the "Palafoxiana" 
Library, with more than 100,000 volumes; the Palace of Congress, the 
Episcopal Palace, several hospitals, the Academy of Fine Arts, and 
three theaters. The cit}^ is one of the most important in the Republic 
by reason of its commerce and industries, possessing several cotton 
and woolen mills, glass factories, and other establishments. 

Southern group: Acatlan, population 45,626; Chiautla, 39,680; 
Matamoros, 39,906; Tehuacan, 71,351; Tepexi, 49,848, and Tecama- 
chalco, 50,924, the principal towns of which bear the same names. 

The State of Queretaro-Arteaga, population 228,551, whose capital 
city is Queretaro, population 34,576, is one of the smallest in the 
Mexican Republic, rich in minerals, well irrigated, and prosperous. 
Its boundaries are San Luis Potosi on the north, Hidalgo on the east 
and northeast, Mexico to the southeast, Michoacan on the south, 
and Guanajuato on the west. The area is estimated at 14,927 square 
kilometers. 

Topographically the State may be divided into two regions, the 
northern portion being mountainous, the ranges extending toward the 
center, while the central and southern sections are occupied by plains 
and valleys. In the north are the Sierra Gorda Mountains, running 
from west to east, these mountains being also known as the Sierra de 
Queretaro. Among the peaks are the Cerro Alto, Cerro Colgado, 
Cerro del Campanario, Pilon, Santa Rosa, Cimatario, Minteji, and the 
historic Cerro de las Campanas, where Maximilian, Miramon, and 
Mexia were shot. 

Queretaro is irrigated b}^ a large number of rivers and smaller 
streams, the principal being the Conca or Jalpan, emptying into the 
Ayutla; the Extoraz, the Moctezuma, the Galinda, Queretaro, Juri- 
quilla, and their tributaries. There are several small lakes, the prin- 
cipal being Cerro Grande, Conca, Sancillo, and Saledon; also many 
swamps and mineral springs. 

Climatic conditions vary with the altitudes. Rainfall and frosts 
are moderate, and the winds are variable. The prevailing diseases 
are malarial and other fevers; also affections of the respiratory and 
digestive organs. 

The fauna and flora possess the same general characteristics as do 
those of the other Mexican States, being varied and abundant. 

The State of Queretaro occupies a very fertile region, producing all 
kinds of cereals, leguminous plants, fruits, etc., so that agriculture is 
the principal industry. Cotton, sugar cane, and wheat are also culti- 



MEXICO. 115 

vated, the latter yielding 100 grains to the seed, and being considered 
the best in the Republic. In 1897 the number of plantations in the 
State were, according to official figures, 195, of which 179 were devoted 
to the culture of cereals, 9 to maguey mescal, 2 to sugar cane, and 5 
to cattle breeding, the yearly product being estimated in the following 
values: Cereals, $2,166,981; maguey products, 51,074 hectoliters, at 
$150,845; ixtle, 39,330 kilograms, at $3,436, and tobacco, $1,380. 
Stock may be estimated at a value of about $2,500,000. 

Minerals abound throughout the entire State, Cadereyta and Toll- 
man being the richest mining regions. The principal products are 
silver, galena, copper, iron, cinnabar, mercury, coal, and lead, while 
among the precious stones are opals, garnets, and similar deposits. 
There are 59 mines in the Cadereyta district, 8 in Tollman, and 35 
in Jalpan. There are over 20 establishments for the reduction of ores, 
all of which, however, are not in operation. 

The trade of the State may be estimated at from 9,000,000 to 
10,000,000 pesos per annum. This is carried on principally with the 
neighboring States, corn, wheat, and other cereals, fruits, jerked beef, 
etc. , being sent thither, and mineral products shipped to the United 
States. The imports follow the same general line as the imports of 
the other Mexican States, most of them coming from the United 
States, Europe, and Mexico City, and are estimated at a value of 
about $5,000,000, exports being calculated at $4,000,000. 

The Mexican Central Railroad traverses the State from southeast to 
west for an extent of 95 kilometers, and has several stations. The 
various districts also are crossed by tramways, and good wagon roads 
are abundant, the mail, telegraph, and telephone services being 
especiall}'^ efficient. 

In addition to agriculture and mining, such industries as linen, 
woolen, and cotton-goods manufactories, flour mills, distilleries, brew- 
eries, paper mills, etc., flourish. 

The State is divided into 6 districts, subdivided into municipalities. 
The districts are: 

Jalpan, population 33,786, which is a rich mining section, and whose 
principal town is Jalpan, situated 127 kilometers from the capital of 
the State, Queretaro. 

Cadereyta, population 24,312, the richest mining district of the 
entire State; the chief town, Cadereyta Mendez, is 76 kilometers 
from Queretaro. 

San Juan del Rio, population 41,077; its chief town, bearing the 
same name and having a population of 9,040, is situated 59 kilometers 
from Queretaro, on the Central Railroad, and is the second city of the 
State. A line of street cars traverses the town. 

Tollman, population 27,320; its chief town Tollman, or San Pedro 
de Tollman, 117 kilometers from Queretaro, is noted for its opals. 



116 MEXICO. 

Queretaro, or Distrito del Centro, population 80,697, the chief town 
of which is Queretaro, also the capital of the State, situated 246 kilo- 
meters from the City of Mexico, and containing 34,576 inhabitants. 
Besides its great commercial importance, this city is perhaps the most 
interesting, historically, in Mexico, having been the cradle of Mexican 
independence, the residence of the Executive during the war with the 
United States, and the place where the peace treaty was signed in 
1848; also the last refuge of Maximilian and the place of his execution. 

The principal buildings are the Federal Palace, the Government Pal- 
ace (both built of basalt), the Municipal Palace, the custom-house, the 
cathedral and other churches, several hospitals, the historic "Itur- 
bide" Theater, and the bull ring. An excellent aqueduct, 8 kilo- 
meters in length, furnishes the supply of water, and several cotton and 
woolen mills and other industrial enterprises are in a flourishing con- 
dition. The town next in importance in the district is Hercules, not- 
able on account of the Hercules Mills, the largest textile factory in 
the Republic. 

Amealco, population 21,359, with a chief town of the same name 
situated 67 kilometers from Queretaro. 

The State of Sinaloa, population 258,865, whose capital city is Culia- 
can, population 10,487, is one of the rich mining and agricultural 
sections of the Mexican Republic. It is bounded on the north by 
Sonora and Chihuahua, on the east by Chihuahua and Durango, on the 
south by the Territory of Tepic and the Pacific Ocean, and on the 
west by the Gulf of California. Its area is about 69,346 square kilo- 
meters, and its population 258,845 inhabitants. 

The Gulf of California extends along the coast of the State from 
Agiabampo Bay to the south of Mazatlan, at which point the Pacific 
coast line begins. Numerous bays and harbors are formed by the waters 
of the gulf, the principal being the bay of Topolobampo, on which is situ- 
ated the port of the same name, generally considered to be the best on 
the Pacific coast by reason of its sheltered location. There are also the 
bays of Olas Altas, Mazatlan, Agiobampo, San Ignacio, Navachiste 
and others indenting the litoral of the State, and forming small inte- 
rior bays, in whose waters appear the islands of Mero, San Felipe 
and Pajaros. Other islands along the coast are Saliaca, Altamura, 
Lobos, San Ignacio, Guinorama, Macapule, Cluendo, and Cuestion. 

The general topographical condition of the State is mountainous, 
the land rising gradually from the gulf coast to the Sierra Madre 
mountains, which traverse Sinaloa north and south and constitute the 
principal range of the section. Others are the Sanabari Mountains, 
the Gacopira, Aguablanca, Cosala, Guadalupe de los Reyes, Tasajera, 
Navachiste, Cuitaboa, and Tescalama. These systems embrace several 
peaks and plateaus. 

Sinaloa is one of the best irrigated sections of the Republic, many 



MEXICO. 117 

of its rivers, such as the Fuerte and Sinaloa, being navigable. Nearly- 
all the streams rise in the Sierra Madre and empty into the Gulf of 
California, the principal being the Fuerte, 670 kilometers in length; 
the Sinaloa, 420 kilometers; the Moscorite, 108 kilometers; the Culia- 
can, 252 kilometers; the Quila, 156 kilometers; the Elota, 221 kilo- 
meters; the Piaxtle, 203 kilometers; the Presidio or Mazatlan, 167 
kilometers; the Chametla or Rosario, 165 kilometers, and the Canoas 
or Telapan, 152 kilometers. These rivers all have numerous tribu- 
taries and there are in addition over 200 smaller streams traversing 
the State. 

Climatically tne State may be divided into two regions: The western, 
or hot belt, which is also the maritime section, devoted to agriculture, 
and the eastern or cold belt, which is the mountainous district, devoted 
to mining. Eains are abundant on the coast, and in the mountains 
the precipitation is excessive, frost also being of frequent occurrence. 
Winds are variable, the northeastern predominating. 

The fauna and flora partake of the same characteristics as the majority 
of Mexican States. 

The principal agricultural products are cereals, cotton, tobacco, 
sugar cane, cofi^ee and fruits, their total valuation being about $8,000,000 
per annum. According to Mexican official figures, in 1897, there were 
121 plantations in the State, divided as follows: Cotton, 9; sugarcane, 
20; cereals, 20; maguey mescal, 24; and 48 cattle ranches, the estimated 
value of their products being: Cereals, $6,154,105; sugar cane products 
(direct), 2,393,401 kilograms, at $327,035; rum, $18,988; mescal, 
$212,350; tobacco, $18,350; cotton, $16,267; henequen and ixtle, $6,000. 
Stock raising has an estimated value of about $9,000,000 a year. 

It is claimed that Sinaloa is the richest mining region of Mexico, 
the standard of its production being higher than that of Guanajuato, 
Zacatecas, and Pachuca. The mining district lies in the east of the 
State, gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead being the principal metals. 
There are also rich salt deposits, mineral springs, etc. Culiacan Rosales 
contains fine reduction works and a mint. 

An active import and export trade is carried on through the port 
of Mazatlan, manufactured articles of all kinds being received in return 
for minerals and other native products. Altata and Mazatlan are the 
two customs ports. Imports are valued at about $6,000,000, and 
exports, $5,000,000, while the total trade, including local traffic amounts 
to from 18,000,000 to 19,000,000 pesos per annum. 

The Sinaloa and Durango Railway, also called the Western Mexican, 
has several stations between Altata and Culiacan de Rosales, and the 
International is constructing a branch line from Villa Lerdo (Durango) 
to Topolobampo in addition to the Tepic road which is to traverse the 
coast. There are tramways in the city of Mazatlan and many fine 
wagon roads connecting the principal towns with those of the adjacent 



118 MEXICO. 

States. Coastwise trade is carried on b}'^ several steamship lines, 
while the PaciiicMail and the Mexican International line furnish com- 
munication with foreign countries. 

The telegraphic, telephonic, and mail services are efficient and 
extensive. 

The State is politically divided into 10 districts, subdivided into 
directorias^ as follows: 

El Fuerte, population 31,570, with a chief town of the same name, 
230 kilometers from Culiacan, the State capital. 

Sinaloa, population 41,147; its chief town of the same name is 160 
kilometers from Culiacan. 

Mocorito, population 20,819, the chief town of which, bearing the 
same name, is situated 22 kilometers from Culiacan. 

Culiacan, population 37,803; its chief town, Culiacan Rosales, is 
also the capital of the State, containing 10,487 inhabitants and situated 
1,478 kilometers from the capital of the Republic, This is an important 
commercial center, connected with the port of Altata by a railroad 62 
kilometers in length, possessing very fine public buildings, among 
others the Government palace, the Mint, and the Cathedral. Cotton 
mills and other industrial establishments flourish. Next in impor- 
tance is the city of Altata, a seaport having a large maritime move- 
ment. It is provided with a fine wharf, a powerful beacon light, and 
a custom-house. 

Cosala, population 18,217; its chief town, bearing the same name, 
is 151 kilometers from Culiacan. 

San Ignacio, population 11,846, with a chief town of the same name 
situated 260 kilometers from Culiacan. 

Mazatlan, population 36,807. The chief town, Mazatlan, population 
15,852, is the first port of the Republic, situated 246 kilometers from 
Culiacan and 1,185 from the City of Mexico. It is built on a small 
peninsula opposite the Bay of Olas Altas and contains a weather 
bureau, a fine custom-house, and other public buildings; a chamber of 
commerce and a system of tramways. It is the foremost commercial 
and industrial Mexican town on the Pacific Ocean, the residence of 
several foreign consuls, and the touching point for the steamship lines 
above referred to. 

Rosario, population 28,122; the chief town, bearing the same name, 
is 322 kilometers from Culiacan. 

Concordia, population 17,940; the chief town, bearing the same 
name, is 299 kilometers from Culiacan. 

Badiraguato, population 17,594, its chief town, of the same name, 
situated 76 kilometers from Culiacan. 

The State of Sonora, population 191,281, the capital city of which is 
Hermosillo, population 8,474, is one of the most northern of the Mex- 
ican States, and is on the United States border. In size it is the second 



MEXICO. 119 

State in the Republic, having an area of 199,224 kilometers. Its 
boundaries are: On the north, Arizona and New Mexico (United 
States); on the east. Chihuahua; on the west, the Gulf of California, 
and on the south, Sinaloa. 

The State is washed by the Gulf of California for a distance of 860 
kilometers, from the mouth of the Colorado River to the port of Agia- 
bampo. This gulf is 1,190 kilometers in length and 306 in breadth, 
at its widest point. The Sonora litoral, which is low and arid, extends 
in a line almost parallel to Lower California, a pecularity of the region 
being that the rain falls from a cloudless and serene sky. Several 
islands lie along the coast, among them being San Pedro Nolasco, San 
Pedro Martin, Tiburon, Patos, San Jorge, and Pelicano; as well as 
many capes, bays, etc. Guaymas is the principal gulf port of the 
State. 

In the east Sonora is traversed by the Sierra Madre Mountains, from 
which extend various ramifications forming beautiful valleys, ravines, 
and canyons. The principal of these secondary chains are the Sierras 
Guadalupe, San Luis, Batuco, Alamos, Antimez, Bacatete, and Prietas. 
The western portion is flat, and the largest valley is that of Guaymas. 

The principal rivers, all of which empty into the Gulf of California, 
are the Altar, also called Asuncion and San Ignacio, 358 kilometers in 
length; the Yaqui, 838 kilometers; the Mayo, 293 kilometers; the 
Sonora, 110 kilometers, and the Matope, 234 kilometers. There are 
other streams of lesser importance, and a lake, called San Rafael. 

The climate varies according to the altitude, is cold in the moun- 
tains, temperate on the slopes, and hot and dry near the coast and in 
the valleys. During the summer season the thermometer reaches 98° 
F. in Hermosillo, and in Guaymas it has gone as high as 119°. The 
minimum temperature for the winter months is 45°. Rainfall is 
moderate, and frost occurs occasionally in some districts, more espe- 
cially in the Sierra Madre regions. 

The fauna and flora are remarkable for their wealth and variety'", 
embracing the same species common to the rest of the country. The 
Gulf of California is noted for its fish and for its pearl oysters, the 
latter, it is claimed, yielding gems superior to those of the Gulf of 
Aden, in Asia. 

Notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, a lack of adequate irriga- 
tion facilities, in certain sections, is a drawback to agricultural devel- 
opment. The principal products are cereals, tobacco, cotton, sugar 
cane, fruits, etc. According to the ofiicial figures for 1897, the num- 
ber of plantations in the State was 270, divided into: Sugar cane, 40; 
cereals, 179; fruits, 3; maguey mescal, 8; tobacco, 13, and 27 cattle 
ranches, producing cereals to the value of $1,661,944; sugar-cane prod- 
ucts, 1,022,935 kilograms, at $123,777; mescal, $1,097,320; cotton, 
277,165 kilograms, at |82,452; tobacco, 222,190 kilograms, at $46,890. 



120 MEXICO. 

At one time cattle were extensivelj^ exported to the United States, 
but owing to the high duties, almost prohibitory, imposed by that 
country this branch of commerce has decreased. 

Sonora is classed not only among the richest mineral producing sec- 
tions of Mexico, but also of the world, the leading products being 
silver, lead, gold, copper, coal, antimony, iron, cinnabar, and graphite. 
Exports of these minerals to the United States are estimated at a value 
of from 10,000,000 to 12,000,000 pesos per annum. Although many 
of the mines are in exploitation, an equal number are lying idle. 

Owing to its geographical position all the foreign trade of the State 
is with the adjacent States and Territories of the American Union, 
while its home trade is carried on with Sinaloa, Chihuahua, and 
Lower California. The principal exports are metals and metallic 
ores, fruits, hides and skins, woods, etc. , to the United States, wheat, 
flour, and cotton to Sinaloa and Chihuahua, pearls to Europe and the 
United States; and the principal imports are machinery and implements 
for mining and agriculture, silk, cotton, linen and woolen goods, wines 
and liquors, arms and ammunition, and hardware. The total trade of 
the State may be estimated as worth from 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 pesos 
per annum. 

The only railway traversing the State is the Guaymas and Nogales 
(Sonora) road, 422.302 kilometers in length, which, in Nogales (Ari- 
zona), connects with the Southern Pacific Railroad. The State has 
one street railway 3 kilometers in length, and the "Imuris Mining 
Company, Limited," owns another 18 kilometers long, and three con- 
cessions have been granted. Several fine wagon roads connect the 
different cities and towns with those of the adjacent States. Tele- 
graphic, telephonic, and mail services are efficient and extended. 

The principal industries are mining, agriculture, and commerce. 
There are a few manufacturing establishments, such as cotton and 
woolen mills, soap and candle factories, and distilleries. 

Sonora is divided into 9 districts, subdivided into municipalities. 
The districts and their chief towns are as follows: 

Altar, population 14,075, chief town El Altar, 2.16 kilometers from 
Hermosillo. This district is rich in mines. 

Magdalena, population 13,846; the chief town, of the same name, 
is 150 kilometers from Hermosillo. The second town in importance 
is Nogales, on the boundar}^ line between Mexico and the United States, - 
separated from the American town of the same name by a street only. 
It is the terminal point of the Sonora Railway and has a customs port. 

Arizpe, population 13,465, also rich in minerals; its chief town, of 
the same name, is 219 kilometers distant from Hermosillo. 

Moctezuma, population 13,782, rich in mines; its chief town, Moc- 
tezuma or Oposura, is 185 kilometers from Hermosillo. 



MEXICO. 121 

Sahuaripa, population 11,460, a mineral district, the chief town of 
which, of the same name, is 323 kilometers from Hermosillo. 

Alamos, population 50,939, a mineral district, with a chief town of 
the same name, which is the third city in the State and situated 309 
kilometers from Hermosillo. 

Guaymas, population 19,338, also a mineral district, possessing 
excellent coal beds; the chief town of which, Guaymas, is one of the 
most important commercial ports on the Pacific, 154 kilometers from 
Hermosillo. It is connected by rail with Nogales. 

Hermosillo, population 28,094, very rich in mines; chief town, 
Hermosillo, is also the capital of the State, with 8,474 inhabitants, and 
situated 2,527 kilometers from the City of Mexico, 281 from Nogales, 
and 144 from Guaymas. This city has many fine public buildings, 
among others the Mint, the Cathedral, a library, and the Government 
Palace. It is one of the railroad stations of the Sonora Line. 

Ures, population 26,292; chief town of the same name 76 kilometers 
from Hermosillo. 

The State of Tabasco, population 134,839, whose capital city is San 
Juan Bautista, population 9,604, lies in the southeastern part of the 
Republic, its boundaries being the Gulf of Mexico on the north, the 
State of Campeche on the east, Chiapas on the south, Veracruz on the 
west, and the Republic of Guatemala on the southeast. Its area is 
30,000 square kilometers. 

On the Gulf the coast line of the State extends for 200 kilometers, 
and is low and healthful, the natural depression of the soil form- 
ing several lakes. There are no capes, bays, or sheltered harbors 
along the coast, but vessels find anchorage in the mouths of the rivers, 
called bars, the principal of which are the San Pedro and San Pablo, 
formed by the the river bearing that name at the boundar}'^ between 
Tabasco and Campeche; the Tabasco, Frontera, or Principal, formed 
by the Grijalva, giving access to the port of Frontera and the capital 
of the State; the Chiltepec, which is the widest and deepest of all, 
formed by the Gonzalez River, and the Tonala, formed by the river 
Tancochopa, the boundary between Tabasco and Veracruz. 

The surface of the State is generally a plain, slightly broken by 
hillocks and river beds, except toward the south and southeast, where 
a spur of the Sierra Madre rises. The highest mountains are the 
Ixtapangajoya, the Cocona, Puyacatengo, Madrigal, Quemado, Tortu- 
guero, Limon, and Chinal. 

Of all the States of Mexico, Tabasco possesses the best hydrographic 
system. Two large basins, the Usumacinta and the Grijalva, collect 
the innumerable streams. The Usumacinta River is formed by the 
junction of the Pasion and Salina rivers (both entering from Guate- 
malan territory), and is afterwards joined by the waters of the Cha- 



122 MEXICO. 

Jill, Jatate, Lacantan, Cendales, and others. This river is 800 kilo- 
meters in length, and navigable 300 kilometers from its mouth for 
good-sized steamers. The Grijalva River is formed by the confluence 
of the Mexcalapa and the Sierra, or Tacotalpa. The former rises in 
the State of Chiapas, and receives throughout its extent more than 30 
streams, and is navigable for 126 kilometers. The Tacotalpa also takes 
its source in Chiapas, and has numerous tributaries. The Grijalva 
proper commences with the junction of these two streams, and 
empties into the Gulf of Mexico, and is navigable from the Frontera 
bar as far as Las Palmas, a distance of 280 kilometers. Other rivers 
are the Cuxcuchopa, navigable for 60 kilometers, the Soledad, Coc- 
cohital, Tular, Tortuguero, and Tonala. 

As has been stated, the general character of the land being a plain, 
with little slope seaward, the rain waters form many lakes, the princi- 
pal are Matillas, Chichicastre, Zapote, Viento, Ramon, Bernete, Palo 
Alto, Ballo, Largarten, Encantada, Veladero, Chimal, and Puerto 
Cabello. 

The climate is hot, tempered, however, by the numerous streams. 
Rainfall is abundant, and the temperature during the summer months 
(February to May) is from 27° to 28° C. (80° to 82° F.), and in the coolest 
months (December and January) the mean temperature is from 17° to 
18° C. (62° to 64° F.). The prevalent diseases are malarial fevers and 
dysentery. 

The fauna and flora of the State are both rich and varied, including 
all the species found in other parts of the Republic situated in the 
same zone. 

Agriculture, and the industries directly derived from it, constitutes 
the source of future development, the soil, on account of its topog- 
raphy, is peculiarly rich in spontaneous vegetation. The work^ from 
which the data referring to the State of Tabasco are obtained states 
that the agricultural production amounts in value to 8,000,000 pesos 
annuall}'^, of which 6,000,000 represents the home consumption and 
the remainder export values. Throughout the State 20,000 men are 
engaged in farming, 6,000 of whom are plantation owners. The lead- 
ing products are cacao, sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, corn, rice, fruits, 
rubber, pepper, vanilla, cedar, mahogany, logwood, and other dye and 
cabinet woods. According to the ' ' Anuario Estadistico " for 1897, the 
number of plantations in Tabasco was 370, divided as follows: Cacao, 
124; coffee, 8; sugar cane, 44; cereals, 60; tobacco, 12, and 122 cattle 
ranches. The production was: Cereals, $680,890; sugar-cane prod- 
ucts (direct), 2,470,061 kilograms, at $329,025; rum, 18,459 hec- 
toliters, at $277,336; logwood, 9,960,692 kilograms, at $198,631; 
cacao, 418,033 kilograms, at $498,898; coffee, 70,114 kilograms, at 

^ Resena Economica del Estado de Tabasco, by Alberto Correa, 1899. 



MEXICO. 123 

,482; tobacco, 77,300 kilograms, at $54,730; rubber 84,199 kilo- 
grams, at $149,068; and chicle, 402,469 kilograms, at $180,223. 

Stock raising, notwithstanding the great facilities offered by nature, 
is not as flourishing as should be. The number of cattle being esti- 
mated by Correa at about 150,000 head. 

Mining receives practically no attention, no precious minerals being 
found within the limits of the State, but there are indications of 
deposits of coal, asphaltum, cinnabar, and petroleum. 

Commerce is well developed, there being, according to the authority 
above cited, 500 commercial houses, representing a capital of $4,000,000, 
established throughout the State. Foreign trade through the port of 
Frontera during 1897-98 amounted to $540,000 silver for imports 
and $810,191 for exports, a difference of $270,191 in favor of the 
exports. A large share of the trade in dye and cabinet woods seems 
to be carried on through the port of Carmen, amounting in value to 
$300,000, which would increase the export trade of the State to over 
$1,200,000 yearly. The leading articles of export are dye and cabinet 
woods, hides and skins, coffee, tobacco, and rubber. Coastwise and 
local trade is estimated at a valuation of $1,560,000 for imports and 
$1,920,000 for exports, thus giving $5,400,000 as the total for both 
foreign and domestic trade. 

Tabasco has no steam railways, but there are three lines of horse 
cars, one from San Juan Bautista to Carrizal, about 6 kilometers in 
length; one from Cardenas to Paso de Cardenas on the Grijalva River, 
7 kilometers, and one (the Interfluvial) between San Juan Bautista and 
Boca Nueva, 6 kilometers in length. Other lines are projected, among 
them one to run from Cardenas to Barra de Dos Bocas, 80 kilometers, 
and another from Teapa to La Ermita. Wagon roads and mule paths 
lead to all the principal centers, and there is a daily improving river 
transit system, 16 steamers being at present employed in this means 
of communication. Efficient and extended telegraphic, mail, and tele- 
phonic service is available. 

The principal manufacturing industries are the development of sugar- 
cane products, yielding over $500,000 annually; the manufacture of 
cigars and cigarettes, and the production of brick, soap, candles, and 
chocolate. 

Politically the State is divided into 17 municipalities, subdivided 
into rural districts ( Vecindarios 7'urales)^ as follows: 

Balancan, population 3,043; Cardenas, 7,850; Comacalco, 10,169; 
Cunduacan, 9,364; Huimanguillo, 11,254; Jalapa, 8,236; Jalpa de 
Mendez, 4,599; Jonuta, 3,687; Macuspana, 12,135; Montecristo, 2,144; 
Nacajuca, 9,714; Paraiso, 4,912; Tacotalpa, 4,861; Teapa, 6,319; 
Tenosique, 2,683, their chief towns bearing the same names; also Fron- 
tera, population 6,794, and San Juan Bautista, 27,075, which are the 
principal municipalities, the former having, as the capital, the port of 



124 MEXICO. 

Frontera and the latter, San Juan Bautista, which is also the State capital, 
containing 9,604 inhabitants. This city has tramway lines and many 
fine buildings, among them the Palace of the Legislative and Executive 
powers, hospitals, a theater, and three churches. 

The State of Tamauiipas, population 206,502, whose capital city is 
Ciudad Victoria, population 14,774, is a favored land, requiring only 
more general irrigation and capital to develop its immense wealth. It 
is bounded on the north by the Rio Bravo, which separates it from 
the State of Texas (U. S. A.), on the northwest by Coahuila, on the 
west by Nuevo Leon, on the south by San Luis Potosi, on the south- 
east by Veracruz, and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. The area 
of the State is 83,234 square kilometers, and its population 208,102 
inhabitants. 

Tamauiipas occupies one of the most beautiful sections of the Repub- 
lic. Its coast line stretches from the bar of the Rio Bravo on the 
north to Tampico on the south, an extent of 440 kilometers, being 
formed by a succession of sand banks. This part of the State is almost 
uninhabited, as with the exception of two or three unimportant vil- 
lages the centers of population are from 8 to 12 kilometers inland. 
There are several bars, the principal being the Jesus Maria, at the 
junction of the Madre Lake and the Gulf of Mexico, which is 800 
meters wide and 15 feet below the level of the water at high tide; the 
Tampico bar, at a depth of from 8 to 9 feet; the Soto de Marina bar 
and the bar of the Rio Bravo. The prevailing winds on the Gulf coast 
are from east, northeast, and southeast, but in winter "northers" are 
frequent and dangerous. 

The southern and central portions of the State are mountainous, the 
northern part containing extensive fertile plains, adapted for stock 
raising. The principal mountain ranges are the Pamoranes, separated 
from the San Carlos range by 25 to 29 kilometers, and the Sierra 
Madre, which traverses the southwestern, western, and central por- 
tions, its principal peaks being Cerro Mocho and Cerro Shigiie. The 
most remarkable valley, by reason of its beauty and fertility, is the 
Jaumave; others are the Rusias and the Santa Barbara de Ocampo. 

Tamauiipas has four large rivers which may be made navigable; also 
several small lakes and many small streams. The principal rivers are 
the Rio Bravo del Norte, the boundary line between Mexico and the 
United States, flowing from northwest to southeast, and emptying into 
the Gulf of Mexico; the Conchas, also called the Presas; the Soto de 
la Marina, navigable for 50 kilometers from its mouth, and the Gua- 
yalejo, wi^ their respective tributaries. The most important lakes 
are on the Gulf coast, and are the Laguna Madre, 210 kilometers in 
length, containing several small islands; the Pesquerias, or Morales, 
34 kilometers long, also containing small islands; the Tordo, San 



. MEXICO. 125 

Andres, Chairel, Champayan, and Carpintero. Mineral springs 
abound. 

The climate of Tamaulipas is generally hot and damp on the coast 
and in the vicinity of the lakes and rivers; temperate on the slopes of 
Sierra Madre and in the valleys, and dry and temperate in the Lagri- 
mas Valley. Rainfall is abundant in the sierras and moderate in the 
valleys, and throughout the district watered by the Rio Bravo frost 
is frequent. The highest temperature experienced in the State is 
from 32° to 33° C. (89° to 91° F.), and the lowest 15° to 24° C. 
(59° to 75° F.), the extremes being at noon and midnight. The pre- 
vailing diseases are malarial fevers and affections of the respiratory 
and digestive organs. 

The fauna and flora are rich and varied snd present the same general 
features as mark that of other Mexican States. 

Agricultural products are, in the main, such as exist elsewhere in 
the Republic, cereals, leguminous plants, sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, 
cotton, and maguey. Official figures for 1897 credit the State 
with 76 plantations as follows: Cotton, 3; sugar cane, 28; cereals, 23; 
and 22 cattle ranches, the valuation of their production being given 
at $46,129 for cereals; 3,470,642 kilograms of sugar-cane products at 
$293,362; $40,842 for rum; $28,046 for mescal; 3,349,600 kilograms 
of ixtle at $224,288, and 277,156 kilograms of cotton at $82,452. 

Although the mineral wealth of the State is most abundant, it has 
not been developed to any extent. The minerals found are gold, silver, 
iron, and copper; also salt, marble, and asphalt. The commercial future 
of Tamaulipas is assured by reason of its excellent ports, its close 
proximity to the United States, its railroad lines and natural wealth; 
its present disadvantages being limited to a lack of population and 
adequate capital and to restricted means of foreign communication. 
Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon are the principal mercantile centers, the 
exports of the former town consisting of beef cattle, horses, ixtle, 
sarsaparilla, woods, fruits, hides and skins, rubber and asphalt, while 
the imports are plows, machinery, arms, hardware, alimentary pro- 
ducts, wines and liquors, cotton, silk and woolen goods, etc. The 
frontier of this State bordering on the United States belongs to the 
Free Zone. 

Three railroad lines traverse the State, the Mexican National, the 
Monterey and Gulf, and the Mexican Central. The first-mentioned 
line crosses it twice, first in the northwest, on the International Line 
from Mexico to Nuevo Laredo, and again in the north, on the Mata 
moros, San Miguel and Monterey Line. The Monterey and Gulf 
Line crosses it diagonally from west to northeast on the Monterey, 
Tampico and Trevifio road, and the Mexican Central on the line from 
Tampico to San Luis Potosi. The Central also has a line from Chica- 



126 MEXICO. 

lote to Tampico. There are three lines of tramways in Matamoros, 
one in Nuevo Laredo, one in Victoria, one in Tampico, and another 
connecting' this port with the capital. Concessions have also been 
granted for several more lines. Telephone, telegraph, and mail serv- 
ice is efficient and extended. Several steamship lines touch at Tam- 
pico, the principal being the Hamburg- American, the Harrison, the 
West India and Pacific, and the New York and Cuba Steamship Com- 
pany. Wagon roads are numerous, but their condition leaves much 
to be desired. 

Besides manufactured products directly derived from agriculture, 
such as sugar, rum, etc., the State also has beer, soap, and capdle 
manufactories. 

Tamaulipas is divided into 4 districts, subdivided into 38 municipal- 
ities. The districts and their principal cities are follows: 

Distrito del Norte, population 66,197, its chief town is Mata- 
moros, population 17,664, 293 kilometers from Victoria, the State 
capital. This is a fluvial port, on the Rio Bravo, 50 kilometers from 
the Gulf coast and carries on a large trade. It is a fine city, pos- 
sessing many public buildings, tramway lines, etc. Next in impor- 
tance comes Nuevo Laredo, on the Rio Bravo, opposite the American 
town of the same name (Texas), with which it is connected by an 
iron bridge. It has a frontier customs port, and is the second cus- 
toms district of the Republic. It is distant 547 kilometers from the 
City of Mexico by rail and 320 from Matamoros. Other important 
towns are Guerrero and Mier, also frontier customs ports, and Rey- 
nosa and Camejo. 

Distrito del Centro, population 65,157, whose chief town, Ciudad 
Victoria, is also the State capital, containing 14,774 inhabitants, and 
distant 1,367 kilometers from the City of Mexico by rail; 550 from 
Nuevo Laredo, and 233 from Tampico. The city possesses fine public 
buildings, tramways, and other modern improvements, and as it lies on 
the line of the Monterey and Gulf Railway, it has a large trade. Other 
important towns are Soto de la Marina, a fluvial port, 63 kilometers 
from the Gulf, the river from which it takes its name being naviga- 
ble for more than 141 kilometers, Villagran, San Carlos, and Hidalgo. 

Distrito del Sur, population 37,000; its chief town, Tampico, popu- 
lation 11,912, a Gulf port, is steadily growing in importance. Its 
custom-house receipts up to the end of November, 1899, were larger 
by a considerable sum than those of the great port of Veracruz. The 
Panuco River, which flows by it, waters one of the most valuable sec- 
tions of the territory of the Republic, where agriculture and stock 
raising offer inducements not equaled elsewhere in the country. The 
navigation business on this river is constantly increasing, and it is 
stated that a French company is investing $1,000,000 in the sugar indus- 
try in the district. A company organized about a year ago in Chicago, 



MEXICO. 127 

EL, recently bought a tract of 8,000 acres of land within 9 miles of 
Tampico, where it will be engaged in the culture of tropical products. 

The city possesses several fine public buildings, tramways, and all 
modern conveniences, and is the terminus of two railroad lines, the 
Monterey and Gulf and the Mexican Central. Other important towns 
are Altamira, Aldama, Nuevo Morelos, and Quintero. 

Cuarto Distrito, population 48,148; its chief town is Tula, pop- 
ulation 19,421, 160 kilometers from Victoria, and one of the principal 
commercial centers of the State. Other towns are Ocampo, Jaumave, 
Palmillas, and Bustamente. 

The State of Tlaxcala, population 166,803, with a capitai city bearing 
the same name, is the smallest State in the Republic, Its boundaries 
are the State of Puebla on the north, east, and south, and Mexico on 
the west, its area measuring 4,132 square kilometers. 

Tlaxcala is situated within the cold region of Mexico, and its valleys, 
though sandy, are fertile. It forms a portion of the Central Plateau, 
being situated over 2,000 meters above the level of the Gulf. The 
eastern slopes of the Popocatepetl range rise in the west of the State, 
while toward the south rises the Malinche range with its snow-capped 
peaks, Malintzi, 4,107 meters in height, and the Xaltonale, 3,848 
meters high. The highest points in the eastern portion of the State 
are Penon del E-osario, 3,359 meters, and Huitintepec, 3,080 meters 
high. Other elevated points throughout the State range from 2,000 
to 2,700 meters in height. The principal valleys are the Huamantla, 
the Pie Grande, Apam, and Zahuapam, 

The principal rivers are the Zahuapam, emptying into the Atoyac, 
and the Atoyac and its few tributaries. There are also several per- 
manent streams, among them the Negros, Tenexac, Achiachiapam, 
Totolac, and Tequixquiatl. The principal lakes are the Acuitlapilco, 
105 hectares in extent, Rosario, 252 hectares, Xonecuila, and Santa 
Clara. 

The climate of the State is cold and healthful, as its mean altitude is 
between 2,000 and 3,000 meters above sea level. Rainfall is moderate 
throughout the year and frost is frequent during the winter. The 
prevailing diseases are typhus and malarial fevers and affections of 
the respiratory organs. 

The fauna and flora embrace the usual species indigenous to the 
Mexican States. 

Tlaxcala is essentially an agricultural State, cereals and pulque 
forming the chief products. Oflicial figures for 1897 credit it with 
154 plantations, devoted in the following proportions to various cul- 
tures: Cereals, 100, and maguey, 48; and 6 cattle ranches. The valu- 
ations are given as — cereals, $2,282,847; maguey products (pulque, 
mescal, and tlachique), 458,189 hectoliters, at $498,307. 



128 MEXICO. 

The State has no importance as a mining district, though gold, 
silver, lead, cinnabar, and a small proportion of coal have been found. 

The value of the annual commerce is estimated at about 18,000,000, 
consisting chiefly in the export of pulque to the City of Mexico and 
to Puebla and adjacent States; of cereals and other agricultural prod- 
ucts, paper and cotton from the native mills, flour, etc., the principal 
imports being alimentary products, hardware, furniture, machinery, 
and agricultural implements. 

Three railroads cross the State — the Mexican, running on the Mexico 
and Veracruz line and on the Apizaco and Puebla branch; the Inter- 
oceanic, from Acapulco and Veracruz to Mexico, and the Santa Ana 
and Tlaxcala road, from Chiantempan to Tlaxcala. There are several 
wagon roads in good condition leading to the adjacent States. Postal, 
telegraph, and telephone service is good and extended. 

The principal manufacturing establishments of the State are its 
cotton and print mills, a glass factory, and several foundries. 

The political divisions of the State are 6 districts, subdivided into 
municipalities. The districts are: 

Ocampo, population 20,037; its chief town is Calpulalpam San 
Antonio, on the Interoceanic Railroad, 60 kilometers from the State 
capital. 

Morelos, population 17,949; its chief town is Tlaxco San Augustin, 
42 kilometers from Tlaxcala. 

Juarez, population 36,295; its chief town, Huamantla, is 38 kilo- 
meters from Tlaxcala. 

Zaragoza, population 35,941; its chief town, Zacateco Santa Ines, 
12 kilometers from Tlaxcala. 

Hidalgo, population 38,636, whose chief town, Tlaxcala, the State 
capital, with 2,847 inhabitants, is also the most important town in the 
State, possessing many fine buildings, and having rail connection with 
the City of Mexico. 

Cuauhtemoc, population 17,915; its chief town is Barron-Escandon, 
or Apizaco, situated on the line of the Mexican Railroad, 26 kilometers 
east of Tlaxcala. 

The State of Veracruz-Llave, population 866,355, whose capital city 
is Xalapa, or Jalapa, population 18,168, is considered one of the richest 
and most beautiful regions of the globe. Its area is 71,116 square kilo- 
meters, the boundaries being Tamaulipas on the north, San Luis Potosi, 
Hidalgo, and Puebla on the west, Oaxaca on the south, and the Gulf of 
Mexico on the east. Veracruz occupies a narrow strip of land rising 
gradually from the coast line to the crest of the Sierra Madre Moun- 
tains. Almost the entire section is mountainous, the Sierra Madre 
range occupying the western central portion, running from north to 
south, and rising to the height of 4,089 meters above sea level in the 
peak of Nanchampapetl, or Cofre de Perote. To the south is the 



MEXICO. 129 

majestic snow-capped volcano Citatepetl, or Orizaba, 5,295 meters 
above the level of the sea. Other ranges are the Maltrata, Alcucingo, 
Jalacingo, Oxocupan, and Zongolica. 

The eastern litoral, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, is 700 kilo- 
meters in extent, stretching from the Tampico Bar to Tonala. The 
northern section of this coast line is called the Windward coast, while 
to the south, from Veracruz to the bar of Tonala, is the Leeward 
coast. The shore line is broken by numerous bars, shoals, islands, 
capes, etc. 

Hydrographically the State may be divided into two basins, the 
northern extending from the Panuco River to the Rio Blanco, and the 
southern from the latter stream southward to Taucochapa. The 
rivers susceptible of navigable development are the Panuco, Tuxpam, 
Vinasco, Yautepec, Tecolutla, Nautla, Blanco, and Papaloapam, all 
having several tributaries and forming the hydrographic basins above 
mentioned. There are also several lakes, among them the Catemaco, 
Ostion, Mexcalapa, Tortuguero, and Tecunanapa. 

The climate is very variable, being hot and unhealthy in the south 
and on the coast, yellow fever, dysentery, and black vomit prevailing; 
temperate and, at times, humid at altitudes of more than 1,000 meters; 
temperate and healthful on the mountain slopes; cold at an altitude of 
1,500 meters, and hot in the north. 

The fauna and flora of the State are both rich and varied, embracing 
the species usual in other portions of the Republic. 

The agricultural products include all such as are indigenous else- 
where to Mexico. Official figures give the State of Veracruz 751 planta- 
tions in 1897, divided as follows: Cotton, 23; coffee, 98; sugar cane, 106; 
cereals, 189; fruits, 3; tobacco, 15; woods, 8, and 279 cattle ranches. 
According to the same authority the valuation of the State products 
for that year were: Cereals, $4,661,910; sugar-cane products (direct), 
6,350,208 kilograms - at $657,587; rum, $751,734; maguey products, 
$21,680; cotton, $503,717; ixtle, $10,550; cacao, $16,100; coffee, 
14,302,714 kilograms at $4,416,618; tobacco, 1,706,066 kilograms at 
$462,762; and vanilla, $191,040. Stock raising is also one of the 
sources of wealth and may be estimated at a value of from 24,000,000 
to 25,000,000 pesos. 

Many rich mines are included within the borders of the State, the 
principal yielding gold, silver, lead, iron, mercury, copper, coal, 
petroleum, asphalt, and marble, and also such precious stones as opals, 
agate, lapis lazuli, and amethysts. 

Veracruz is one of the most important commercial sections of the 
Republic, its trade having outlets not only throughout Mexico but 
also to the United States, Europe, the West Indies, and South America. 
The chief ports are Veracruz, Tuxpam, and Coatzacoalcos, devoted 
to foreign commerce, while the other gulf ports are open to coastwise 
651a 9 



130 MEXICO. 

trade only. Exports from Veracruz cover almost all the articles that 
Mexico sends abroad, while the imports are of an equally general 
character. The total trade of the port, both foreign and domestic, 
amounts to about $100,000,000 per annum. 

The railways include the Mexican line from Veracruz to Mexico, 
the Interoceanic, the Veracruz and Alvarado, the Central in the 
north, the Cordoba and Tuxtepec, and two short lines, one from Vera- 
cruz to Antigua and one from Jalapa to Coatepec. Many fine high- 
ways also connect with the principal towns of the adjacent States. 
Maritime communication is effected by means of the several steamship 
lines touching at Veracruz and other ports, viz: The French Trans- 
atlantic, the Hamburg- American, the Royal Mail, the Harrison, the 
West India and Pacific, the Morgan, and the Ward lines. Coastwise 
steamers also ply between home ports. A cable line runs from Coat- 
zacoalcos to Galveston, with stations at Veracruz and Tampico. Tel- 
egraph, telephone, and postal communication is efficient and extensive. 

In addition to the industries directly connected with agriculture, 
mining, and stock raising, the State has many manufacturing interests, 
such as cotton, woolen, saw, and paper mills, and establishments for 
^ he manufacture of chocolate, wax matches, soap, candles, and cigars, 
and several foundries. 

The State is divided into eighteen cantons, subdivided into munici- 
palities. The cantons may be classed in two groups of nine each, 
called, according to their geographical position, maritime and interior 
respectively; they are subdivided as follows: 

Northern maritime, embracing Ozuluama, population 37,656; Tux- 
pam, 47,9M; and Papantla, 44,803, their chief towns bearing the same 
names, respectively, Tuxpam being a seaport open to foreign trade. 

Central maritime, embracing Misantla, population 17,610, whose 
chief town bears the same name; Jalapa, 73,786, the chief town of 
which is Jalapa, also the capital of the State, with 18,168 inhabitants, 
situated 310 kilometers from the City of Mexico and 118 from Vera- 
cruz, being the principal town of the State, the center of a fine agri- 
cultural district, and possessing fine public buildings; and Veracruz, 
92,453, whose chief town bears the same name and is the first commer- 
cial port of the Republic, 424 kilometers from the City of Mexico. 
The chief public buildings of the city of Veracruz are the municipal 
palace, the People's Library (containing over 20,000 volumes), a theater, 
several churches, and the Artillery School. This city is in constant 
communication with the principal ports of the United States, Europe, 
and the West Indies by means of a submarine cable and steamship 
lines. The population is about 24,085 inhabitants. It is the seat of 
the Chamber of Commerce, has a Consular corps, and is equipped with 
two light-houses, street railways, and other modern conveniences. 



MEXICO. 131 

Other towns in the canton are Alvarado and Tlacotalpam, the latter a 
fluvial port on the Papaloapam River. 

Southern maritime, embracing Los Tuxtlas, population 41,735, the 
chief towns being San Andres de Tuxtla and Santiago de Tuxtla; 
Acayucam, population 33,111, its chief town bearing the same name; 
and Minatitlan, population 28,304, with its chief town bearing the 
same name, a railway station. Coatzacoalcos, a gulf port and the 
third town in the State, is also in the canton of Minantitlan. 

Northern interior, embracing the cantons of Tantoyuca, population 
62,079, and Chicontepec, 53,207, their chief towns bearing the names 
of the cantons. 

Central interior, embracing Jalacingo, population 60,729; Coatepec, 
47,667; Huatusco, 31,298; Cordoba, 73,139; Orizaba, 76,657; and 
Zongolica, 25,625, their chief towns bearing the same names as their 
respective cantons, Orizaba, population 31,512, deserves especial men- 
tion as the second city in the State. 

Southern interior, comprising the canton of Cosaloapam, 28,552, 
with its chief town bearing the same name. 

The State of Yucatan, population 298,850, whose capital city is 
Merida, population 36,935, is the greatest henequen-producing region 
of the world. It is bounded on the north by the Gulf of Mexico, on 
the east by the Caribbean Sea, on the south by British Honduras 
and Guatemala, and on the west by the State of Campeche. It com- 
prises an area of 9,120 square kilometers and its population numbered, 
in 1895, 298,039, but according to official data received December 1, 
1899, it had increased to 308,493 on the latter date. 

The peninsula of Yucatan is an immense plain, which, starting from 
the coast line, rises gradually toward the interior to a height of from 
40 to 60 meters. In the northwest, where Merida is located, the soil 
is of a calcareous, dry, and rocky formation, and until the culture of 
henequen transformed it into one of the richest regions of Mexico, it 
was proverbially sterile. The fertility of the land increases toward 
the northeast, while the southeast section offers great natural oppor- 
tunities for wealth, abounding as it does in virgin forests filled with 
valuable d3'^e and cabinet woods and in stretches of land suitable for 
the culture of all the vegetable species. This territory is, however, 
occupied by rebel Indian tribes and has not been accessible to progress 
and civilization for more than fifty years. 

There are two small mountain ranges in the State; the one, called 
Fuc in the Maya tongue, is so uniform in its extent and at so slight an 
elevation above sea level that it might more properly be termed an 
elongated hill. This range, which starts near the partido of Macanu, 
extends toward the east, thence in a southerly direction, after 
which it turns SSE. for a distance of 120 kilometers, gradually 



132 MEXICO. 

decreasing in altitude until, near Peto, it merges into a savanna or 
plain. The other range is formed by a series of hills starting near the 
coast. Several islands lie along the coast, viz, Pajaros and Perez to 
the north; southwest of these is Arenas, while near Cape Catoche are 
Halboy, Contoy, and Blanca, and off the western coast are Mujeres, 
Cancum, and Cozumel. Small cays, which are dangerous for navi- 
gators, abound in the vicinity of Cape Catoche. Mujeres Island, how- 
ever, possesses a line harbor, which with the port of Progreso (open to 
foreign traffic) and the ports of Cozumel, Halboy, Celestun, Telchal, 
Chicxalub, Chuburna, Santa Clara, KJxilam, Bravo, and Sisal are the 
principal coast towns. Sisal is at present almost deserted, though it 
was formerly the chief port of the State. 

The coasts of Yucatan are very low, and, judging from the shells 
found among the rocks and in deep diggings, the entire peninsula was 
at one time covered by the sea. There are no rivers, and all drinking 
water is obtained from natural wells sunk to a greater or less depth. 
The so-called Lagartos River is in reality a shallow arm of the sea, 
and is remarkable for the fact that at a distance of about 400 meters 
inland pools of fresh water spring up amid the salt. These are called 
" Bocas de Conil," and are supposed by Humboldt to be due to 
immense hj^drostatic pressure from the interior of the earth. Such 
springs are also found on the Windward coast. Throughout the 
State are many springs called locally sartenejas^ aguadas^ and cenotes^ 
the first being deposits of rain water among the rocks; the second 
large reservoir-like pools, some of them having been constructed by 
the ancient inhabitants, and the third beautiful caverns where water 
is found in immense quantities. 

The only lake is the Chichankanab, SE. of Merida, about 32 kilo- 
meters distant from Peto, the peculiar characteristic of which is that 
the waters, though beautifully clear, are very bitter, and that the bed 
is composed of crystals closely resembling Epsom salts. 

The climate is generally pleasant, the maximum temperature in 
summer being 32° C. (89° F.) and the minimum in winter 19° C. 
{<6^° F.), the summer heat being tempered by cool breezes. Malarial 
and other fevers are the prevailing diseases. 

The fauna of the State embraces almost all the species found 
throughout the Republic, while the flora is no less rich and varied. 

The principal sources of agricultural wealth consists in the cultiva- 
tion of henequen, but in the northwest section there are a few sugar- 
cane plantations, while in the northeast or forest region dye and cabi- 
net woods, chicle gum, tobacco, and vanilla are grown. Mexican 
official figures for 1897 give Yucatan 826 plantations, divided as fol- 
lows: Sugar cane, 94; cereals, 159; henequen, 348; and 226 cattle 
ranches. The principal products for the same period are estimated as 
follows: Corn, 2,873,488 hectoliters at $5,743,255; beans, 74,715 hec- 



MEXICO. 133 

toliters at |362,627; sugar-cane products (direct), 5,570,539 kilo- 
grams at 1487,182; rum, 62,644 hectoliters at $534,582; henequen, 
47,042,134 kilograms at $6,932,327; logwood, 26,867,423 kilograms 
at $1,018,387, and tobacco, 110,750 kilograms at $50,829. In 1898 
the extent of cultivated lands throughout the State is given officially 
as 54,564 hectares, of which 21,835 were devoted to corn. 

There are no mines in the State; it, however, possesses several kinds 
of building stones, clay, gypsum, etc. 

Stock raising, though carried on to a considerable extent, does not 
meet the requirements of home consumption, large quantities of cattle 
being imported from the adjacent States, especially from Tampico. 
The "Boletin de Estadistica," an official publication issued by the 
State, estimates the yearly importation of beef cattle at 7,000 head. 

The foreign trade of Yucatan is carried on almost exclusively 
through the port of Progreso. According to a Belgian consular 
report,^ the imports at this port in 1898 amounted to $1,866,110 
gold, of which 30 per cent is credited to the United States. The value 
of exports declared at the Progreso custom-house amounted to about 
$9,200,000. The principal items of import are animal, vegetable, 
mineral, textile, and chemical products, wines and liquors, papers, 
machinery, carriages, arms, and ammunition. Henequen alone was 
exported during that year to the amount of 418,972 bales, weighing 
68,834,268 kilograms, according to the authority above quoted, which 
also gives the following data in regard to the exports of the same fiber 
in 1899: To the United States, 428,084 bales (70,171,643 kilograms); 
to Europe, 11,263 bales (1,902,112 kilograms), and to Cuba, 6,631 
bales (1,117,141 kilograms), aggregating 445,978 bales, or 73,190,896 
kilograms. 

The railways of the State are: The M^rida and Progreso, 36 kilo- 
meters; the Izamel, 66 kilometers; the Merida and Valladolid, with a 
branch to Progreso, 78 kilometers; the Merida and Peto, 127 kilo- 
meters, running to San Antonio, and the Peninsular road from Merida 
to Campeche, 173 kilometers. In May, 1899, a company was organ- 
ized under the name of the Yucatan Southeastern Company, vnth a 
capital of $1,000,000, Mexican silver, to open up vast uncultivated 
regions in the old Maya peninsula. There are also 36 kilometers of 
street railways in Merida, and several wagon roads. Maritime com- 
munication is carried on by means of the New York and Cuba Mail 
Steamship Company, the Imperial German Mail, the Harrison Line, 
the West India and Pacific Steamship Company, the Spanish Trans- 
atlantic Line, two Mexican lines, the Prince Line, the Johnston Line, 
and others. Telegraphic, telephonic, and mail services are efficient and 
extended. 

^Eecueil Consulaire, tome 104, p. 351, 1899. Bruxelles. 



134 MEXICO. 

The principal industry of the State is the manufacture of henequen 
ropes and bags. An American firm has established a factory for the 
preparation of vegetable pepsin from \h& jpajpaya {carica papaya). 

Politically, Yucatan is divided into 17 partidos, subdivided into 
municipalities. The partidos are: 

Acanceh, population 22,952; its chief town, bearing the same name, 
is situated 25 kilometers by rail from Merida, the State capital. 

Espita, population 10,216, with a chief town bearing the same name. 

Hunucma, population 19,216, with a chief town bearing the same 
name, is 36 kilometers by rail from Merida, the port of Sisal being 
also one of its towns. 

Las Islas, population 2,303; chief town, Isla de Mujeres, a seaport. 
The two other ports of the partido are Cozumel and Halboy. 

Izamal, population 22,039; chief town, bearing the same name, is ^'o 
kilometers from Merida. 

Maxcanu, population 19,630; its chief town of the same name is 58 
kilometers from Merida, the port of the partido being Celestun, 

Merida, population 53,856, whose chief town, Merida, is also the 
the capital of the State, containing 36,935 inhabitants, according to the 
official census of 1895. This is one of the richest cities of the Repub- 
lic, possessing handsome buildings, street railway lines, and all modern 
conveniences. It is also the railway center of the State, 

Motul, population 18,118, with a chief town of the same name, 46 
kilometers from Merida, the port of the partido being Telchac. 

Peto, population 8,465, with a chief town of the same name, is a 
railway terminus. 

Progreso, population 6,057, whose chief town, Progreso, population 
5,911, is 36 kilometers from Merida. It is the principal port of the 
State and the second in the Republic for its import trade, the vessels 
calling there numbering yearly from 500 to 550, of which 350 are 
steamers. The port is not safe, especially in bad weather. Other 
ports in the partido are Chicxulub and Chuburna, 

The other partidos are Sotuta, population 9,303; Tekax, 18,454; 
Temax, 16,934; Ticul, 24,529; Tixkokob, 13,831; Tizimin, 9,440; and 
Valladolid, 23,507, the chief towns of which bear the same names as 
their respective partidos. 

The State of Zacatecas, population 452,578, the capital city of which 
is Zacatecas, with 39,912 inhabitants, is one of the important interior 
States of the Republic. Its boundaries are: Coahuila on the north, 
San Luis Potosi on the east, Jalisco and Aguascalientes on the south, 
and Durango on the west, its total area being 64,138 square kilometers. 

Situated on the high Central Plateau of the Republic, this State is 
one of the most mountainous regions of the country, and is formed by 
the extension of the Sierra Madre range. Its mean altitude is 2,230 
meters, the highest point being 3,090 meters and the lowest 1,573., 



MEXICO. 1S5 

Owing to topographical conditions agriculture does not prosper 
throughout its extent. The principal mountains are Mazapil, Teco- 
lotes, Novillos, Calabozal, Pichihualtepec, Pitiquitas, San Pedro, 
Tetillas, Mesquital, Melilla, Chacuaco, Chapultepec, and the peak of 
Teyra. 

The two principal rivers are the Juchipila and the Nieves, respec- 
tively 230 and 225 kilometers in length. Other rivers are the tribu- 
taries of those above mentioned and the Jerez, the Tlaltenango, and 
Teul. There are no large lakes, but pools of clear, cold water and 
mineral springs abound. 

The State possesses three climatic regions, the first between 1,550 
and 2,000 meters above sea level, the second from 2,000 to 2,400 
meters, and the third from 2,400 to 3,000 meters, the thermometer 
ranging from 11° to 21° C. (about 52° to 70° F.), according to the alti- 
tude. Rainfall is abundant throughout the State, and the winds from 
the west are cold, while those from the southeast are warm. Fevers 
and pneumonia are the most common ailments. 

Although the fauna of the State is not known very thoroughly, it 
may be said to embrace such species as are common to other parts of 
the Republic, the same being applicable to the flora. 

As has been stated, Zacatecas can not be classed among the impor- 
tant agricultural sections of Mexico. Cereals are, however, its best 
crop, sugar cane and maguey following. 

Mexican official statistics for 1897 give the following data in regard 
to the State: Number of plantations 189, divided as follows: Coffee, 4; 
cereals, 80; maguey, 15; and 90 cattle ranches. The principal agri- 
cultural products for the same year are given as 1,268,704 hectoliters 
of corn, at $2,822,336; barley at $80,379; wheat, 3,989,350 kilograms, 
at 1200,571; sugar-cane products, 1,652,743 kilograms, at $115,484; 
maguey products, 18,462 hectoliters, at $144,398; grape wine to the 
value of $22,853, and tobacco at $45,469. 

Stock raising forms one of the chief sources of wealth, the Zaca- 
tecas stock being renowned throughout the Republic, the sheep espe- 
cially being considered unequaled, both on account of flesh and wool. 
Foreign stock has been imported to improve the native breeds, and 
the experiment has been eminently successfully. 

From a mineral standpoint, this State is one of the richest regions 
in the world, as it contains the Sierra de Zacatecas, which has pro- 
duced fabulous quantities of silver. Other minerals, found in greater 
or less quantities, are gold, mercury, iron, copper, zinc, lead, coal, 
bismuth, and salt. 

Commercially Zacatecas is one of the most important centers of the 
Republic, its trade being estimated at about $41,000,000 per annum, 
as follows: Imports, $15,000,000; exports, $19,000,000; local trade, 
$7,000,000. The United States, Europe, and the City of Mexico 



136 MEXICO. 

receive the mineral exports, the former taking ores and the two latter 
silver bullion and coin. Other products, consisting chiefly of cereals, 
live stock, tallow, horns, bones, mescal, etc. , go to the adjacent States. 
Imports from Mexico City, the United States, and Europe comprise 
groceries, ready-made clothing, hardware, machinery, agricultural 
implements, arms, and ammunition. 

The Mexican Central and the Mexican National railroads traverse 
the State, the former from SE. to NW. on the International line from 
Mexico to Ciudad Juarez and on the Aguascalientes and Tampico line, 
and the latter on the Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi road. There is 
also a narrow-gauge road connecting Guadalupe and Zacatecas, as 
well as several wagon roads. Telegraphic, telephonic, and postal 
services are efficient and extended. 

The principal manufacturing industries are the production of sugar, 
rum, and wine, the reduction of ores, and the manufacture of cotton, 
woolen, and knit goods, carriages, candles, soap, and chocolate. 

The State is divided into 12 partidos, subdivided into municipalities. 
The partidos and their principal cities are: 

Mazapil, population 17,964, an important mining section, the chief 
town of which bears the same name and is situated 336 kilometers 
from Zacatecas. 

Fresnillo, population 54,612, the second agricultural and stock- 
breeding partido of the State, its chief town, Fresnillo, population 
6,757, lies on the Central Railroad, 59 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Zacatecas, population 80,506, one of the richest silver-bearing dis- 
tricts in the world, its chief town bearing the same name, being also 
the State capital, with 39,912 inhabitants. It is also one of the 
principal cities of the Republic, and is situated on the line of the 
Central Railway, 706 kilometers from the City of Mexico, 1,130 from 
the port of Veracruz, 121 from Aguascalientes, and 787 from the port 
of Tampico. The city is equipped with all modern conveniences and 
possesses many fine public buildings, among others the Municipal 
Palace, the Mint, the Institute of Sciences, the Cathedral, and manj" 
churches, hospitals, schools, etc. According to old statistics the 
partido of Zacatecas yielded in the period from 1548 to 1832 minerals 
to the value of 667,343,299 pesos. Guadalupe, population 8,781, is 
the second town in the partido, being of considerable commercial 
importance. 

Ojocaliente, population 18,838, the chief town of which, bearing the 
same name, is 34 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Pinos, population 51,763; its chief town, situated 125 kilometers 
from Zacatecas, bears the same name, and is rich in minerals and pro- 
duces large quantities of maguey mescal. 

Villanueva, population 36,934, is an agricultural region, the chief 
town of which, bearing the same name, is 50 kilometers from Zacatecas. 



MEXICO. 137 

Juchipila, population 18,172, also an agricultural section, with a 
chief town, of the same name, is 251 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Nochixtlan, population 18,499, with a chief town, of the same name, 
is 246 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Tlaltenango, or Sanchez Roman, population 37,361, is a mining 
region; its chief town, bearing the same name, is 202 kilometers from 
Zacatecas. 

Jerez, population 50,253, is the first agricultural section in the State, 
its principal town, of the same name (called also Ciudad Garcia), is 
situated 50 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Sombrerete, population 38,390, is a fine mining region, the chief 
town, of the same name, being situated 88 kilometers from Zacatecas, 
the town of Chalchihuites ranking next in importance. 

Meves, population 29,386, the principal towns of which are Nieves, 
185 kilometers from Zacatecas, and Rio Grande or Gonzalez Ortega, at 
a distance of 164 kilometers. 

The Territory of Baja (Lower) California, population 42,245, is a 
peninsula extending from north to south into the Pacific Ocean for a 
distance of over 1,500 kilometers, its boundaries are the State of 
California (United States) on the north, the Gulf of California on the 
east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west and south. The total area is 
155,200 square kilometers. 

The coast line measures 3,000 kilometers, bordered by a number of 
islands. The principal bays where the ports open to foreign com- 
merce are found, are: La Paz and Santa Rosalia on the Gulf of Cali- 
fornia, and Ensenada Bay on the Pacific. Others worthy of note are 
San Quintin, San Sebastian, Vizcaino, San Pablo, San Roque, Asuncion, 
Magdalena, Ballenas, Pequena, and Almejas on the western or Pacific 
side, while on the gulf or eastern coast are San Felipe, San Luis, 
Remedios, Angeles, Animas, San Carlos, Concepcion, San Nicolas, San 
Basilio, Ventana, Muertos, Palmas, and San Jose. The large islands 
also have their ports and bays, as follows: Angel de la Guarda Island 
contains the port of Refugio and Humbug Bay; Carmen Island, ports 
Lobos and Balandra and the bays of Salinas and Gavilanes, and San 
Jose Island the Bay of Amortajada, and Cedros Island the Bay del Sur. 
Other islands on the Pacific coast belonging to the Republic are: 
Guadalupe, which is extremely fertile and rich in cattle; Todos Santos, 
San Martin, San Geronimo, Sacramento (a reef). Elide, Cedros, JSTativi- 
dad, San Benito, Asuncion, and the large islands of Magdalena, Santa 
Margarita, and Crecientes. On the gulf side are Montague and Gore 
at the mouth of the Colorado River, Gonzaga (a reef), the San Luis 
Islands, the large island of Angel de la Guarda, the Mejia Islands, 
San Marcos, Carmen, Santa Catalina, San Jose, Espiritu Santo, 
Cerralbo, and several others. 

The peninsula is traversed from end to end by a cordillera run- 



138 MEXICO. 

ning nearer the eastern than the western coast, the descent on the 
gulf side being extremely abrupt, while on the Pacific side the coast 
is reached by a succession of low hills. This mountain chain possesses 
remarkable topographical and geological features, in some places gran- 
ite, occasionally metalliferous, forming the central portions. Another 
differential characteristic between the mountains of Upper and Lower 
California are the rocks of volcanic origin which occupy a large extent 
of the territory, giving the country a marked aspect of aridity and 
desolation, this being especially noticeable in the northern part of the 
territory, which is occupied by the Cupapas chain and the Volcano de 
las Virgenes. The highest granite peak is the Cerro del Gigante, near 
Loreto, on the gulf coast, the altitude of which is estimated at 1,300 
meters above sea level. 

With the exception of the Colorado River in the north and several 
small streams in the center and south, among which are the Muleje, 
Todos Santos, San Jos?, Miraflores, and Pur'sima, t e peninsula is 
lacking in means of irrigation. 

The climate is hot and dr}^ in the north and temperate toward the 
south. 

Lack of irrigation and scarcity of rainfall are the causes of the 
general sterility of the soil and the consequent limitations of agricul- 
tural development. Notwithstanding this, however, there are in some 
portions of the peninsula spontaneous productions of the soil which 
yield large profits. Principal among these is the archil, or Spanish 
moss, used for dyeing purposes, which grows profusely throughout 
an extensive belt between 23° 22' and 26° 24' north latitude on the 
west coast. It is not found on the eastern or gulf side, but its growth 
begins again, though to a limited extent, on the coasts of Sonora and 
Sinaloa. Henequen is found in the central regions of the peninsula 
and hemp in the north near the Colorado River. Flowers and orna- 
mental shrubs of all the tropical species grow wild, while cabinet and 
dye woods are also found. Like the flora, the fauna of the territory 
is limited, the species known being similar to those of the northern 
Mexican States. On the western coast the sperm or oil whale and 
otter are found. The Gulf of California abounds in shells and pearls 
from Mulege to Cape Porfia, while seals are found in the waters of 
Tiburon, Angel de la Guarda, and San Lorenzo islands. 

Sugar cane and tropical fruits are successfully cultivated in the 
humid sections, and the grape also receives some attention. The 
" Anuario Estadistico" for 1897 estimates the number of plantations in 
the Territorjr as 30, divided as follows, according to the principal prod- 
uct: Sugarcane, 10; cereals, 13; maguey (mescal), 1; and cattle ranges, 
6; the production of which is estimated as follows: Barley, 2,050 hec- 
toliters, valued at $10,270; corn, 8,618 hectoliters, at $37,385; wheat, 
2,838,917 kilograms, at $171,556; leguminous products, 2,739 kilos, 



MEXICO. 139 

at $20,504; sugar-cane products, 1,819,946 kilos, at $99,357; mescal 
rum, 235 hectoliters, at $8,463; cotton, 30,429 kilos, at $2,112; grape 
wine, 7,516 hectoliters, at $30,712, and tobacco, 32,780 kilos, at 
$8,399. 

The number of head of live stock, according to the latest available 
figures, is 113,027, as follows: Cattle, 76,137; horses, 7,760; mules, 
4,319; asses, 2,584; hogs, 6,379; goats, 12,163, and sheep, 6,295. 

The principal mineral products of the peninsula are gold, silver, 
copper, lead, gypsum, and coal. Physically the Territory might be 
divided into three sections: the northern, or gold bearing; the south- 
ern, or argentiferous, and the central, or copper region. Silver and 
other minerals are found here. The former name of the territory was 
Real de San Antonio. West of this, in the same cordillera, is Mineral 
del Triunfo, the site of very important reduction works. In the 
municipalities of La Paz, San Antonio, Santiago, Mulege, Comandu, 
and Ensenada, gold is found; silver in San Antonio, La Paz, Todos 
Santos, Santiago, San Jose del Cabo, Muleg^, and Comandu, and cop- 
per is most abundant in La Paz, San Antonio, Todos Santos, Mulege, 
Comandu, and Santa Rosalia, the latter being the most important min- 
ing region. It is south of La Paz, and its many mines were first 
worked by the Jesuits in 1700. The mines of this section in exploita- 
tion yield about 200,000 tons of metal annually. Lead is found in 
San Antonio and Mulege, and coal in Santiago. There are abundant 
salt deposits, the principal being the "Ojo de Liebre" on the western 
coast, and those of the islands of El Carmen and San Jos^ on the east. 

In addition to the several high roads and mule paths, the Territory 
contains two steam railways, one belonging to the El Progreso Min - 
ing Company and the other to the Boleo Mining Company, the former 
in Triunfo and the latter in Santa Rosalia, and measuring 10 and 3.6 
kilometers in length, respectively. 

Several lines of steamers ply between the ports of the peninsula, 
six Mexican vessels and one American being engaged in this coast 
trade. Telegraphic and mail communications are efficient, but tele- 
phone service is not \^ery extended. 

Besides the industries directly derived from agriculture and mining 
no manufactures of any importance are established in the Territory. 

Lower California is divided into two districts, the northern, popula- 
tion 7,452, and the southern, with a population of 34,793. This latter is 
subdivided into two partidos and seven municipalities; thePartido Sur 
consisting of the municipalities of La Paz, San Antonio, Santiago, San 
Jose, and Todos Santos, and the Partido Centro of Mulege and 
Comondu. The principal city is La Paz, which is the capital of the 
southern district, containing 4,737 inhabitants. Its principal commerce 
is done with San Francisco, Mazatlan, Guaymas, San Bias, and Manza- 
nillo. Ensenada de Todos Santos is the chief town of the northern 



140 



MEXICO. 



district, with 1,259 inhabitants. Other towns of importance are 
Santa Rosalia and those which bear the names of their respective 
mmiicipalities. 

List of the principal cities and tovms of Mexico, with their population, according to the revised 

census of 1895. 



City or town. 



State. 



Popula- 
tion. 



Mexico 

Puebla 

Guadalajara 

San Luis PotosI 

Leon 

Monterey 

Paehuca 

Zacatecas 

Guanajuato 

M6rida 

Quer6taro 

Morelia 

Oaxaca 

Orizaba 

Aguascalientes 

Saltillo 

Durango 

Veracruz 

Toluca 

Acanceh 

Celaya 

Zopollanejo 

Tula 

Colima 

Irapuato 

Tekax 

Chihuahua 

Xalapa 

Motul 

Matamoros 

Ciudad Guzm&n 

Temax 

Campeche 

MazatUn 

Silao 

Tacubaya 

Victoria 

Lagos 

Tepic 

Salamanca 

Matehuala 

Allende 

Valle de Santiago. . 

Tampico 

Salvatierra 

Tuxtla Gutierrez. . . 

Juehitto 

Culiacan 

Zamora 

Espita 

Sombrerete 

Mocorito 

Teziutl^n 

Maxcanii 

San Juan Bautista . 
San Luis de la Paz . 

Catorce 

Pozos 

Ciudad Garcia 

Tehuantepec 

Comitto 

Uruapan 

Jaumave 

Angangueo 

Zumpango 

Santa Barbara 

San Juan del Rio . . 

HunucmA 

La Piedad 

San Andr6s Tuxtla , 

Sayula 

Tamazula 

Guadalupe... 



Federal District . . 

Puebla 

Jalisco 

San Luis Poto.sl... 

Guanajuato 

Nuevo Leon 

Hidalgo 

Zacatecas 

Guanajuato 

Yucatan 

Quer6taro 

Michoacto 

Oaxaca 

Veracruz 

Aguascalientes . . . 

Coahuila 

Durango 

Veracruz 

M6xico 

Yucatto 

Guanajuato 

Jalisco 

Tamaulipas 

Colima 

Guanaj uato 

Yucatto 

Chihuahua 

Veracruz 

Yucat&n 

Tamaulipas 

Jalisco 

Yucat&n 

Campeche 

Slnaloa 

Guanajuato 

Federal District. . 

Tamaulipas 

Jalisco 

Tepic (Territory). 

Guanajuato 

San Luis Potosi... 

Guanajuato 

do 

Tamaulipas 

Guanajuato 

Chiapas 

Oaxaca 

Sinaloa 

Michoacdn 

Yucatdn 

Zacatecas 

Sinaloa 

Puebla 

Yucatto 

Tabasco 

Guanajuato 

San Luis PotosI... 

Guanajuato 

Zacatecas 

Oaxaca 

Chiapas 

Michoacto 

Tamaulipas 

Michoae^n 

M6xico 

Tamaulipas 

Quer6taro 

Yucatan 

Michoacto 

Veracruz 

Jalisco 

do 

Zacatecas 



MEXICO. 



141 



lAst of the principal cities and towns of Mixico, with their populateon, etc. — Continued. 



City or town. 



Tlatlauquitepec 

Cuernavaca 

Autl&n 

Cortazar 

Coatepec 

Pichucalco 

Tlaxiaco 

Hermosillo 

Tapachula 

Sahuayo 

Parras 

La Luz - 

Tulancingo 

Chilapa 

Finos 

C6rdoba 

Tenejapa 

Puru^ndiro 

Atlixco 

Teocaltiche 

P6njamo : 

Santa Cruz 

VillagrAn 

TehiuacAn 

Parral 

Linares 

Ameca 

Matamoros 

Lerma 

Mier 

San Juan del Mezquital 

San Francisco del Rinc6n 

Cocula 

Pdtzcuaro 

Ixmiquilpan 

Zautla 

Cholula 

Laxedo 

AcAmbaro 

Tixkokob 

Ciudad JuArez 

Chalchlcomula 

San Carlos 

Guanacevi 

Camargo 

Fresnillo 

Yautepec 

EtzatMn 

Peto 

San Antonio 

Ixtamaxtitl&n 

Iguala 

Rio Verde 

Santa Maria del Rio = 

Tixtla 

Guaymas 

San Jos6 de Malacatepec 

La Barca 

Cuitalape 

Zacualco 

Cedral 

Landa 

Chilpancingo 

Huatusco 

La Concordia 

ZacatlAn 

Zit&cuaro 

Alamos 

Reynosa 

Ciudad GonzAles 

Tepatitlan 

San Cdrlos 

Dolores Hidalgo 

AhuaeatMn 

Huautla (San Juan Evangelista) . 

Progreso 

Acatian 

Santiago Tuxtla 

TUpan 

Zachila 

Yuriria 

Acapulco 



State. 



Puebla 

Morelos 

Jalisco 

Guanajuato 

Veracruz 

Chiapas 

Oaxaca 

Sonora 

Chiapas 

Michoac&n 

Coahuila 

Guanajuato 

Hidalgo 

Guerrero 

Zacatecas 

Veracruz 

Chiapas 

Michoacto 

Puebla 

Jalisco 

Guanajuato 

do 

Tamaulipas 

Puebla 

Chihuahua 

Nuevo Leon 

Jalisco 

Puebla 

Mexico 

Tamaulipas 

Zacatecas 

Guanajuato 

Jalisco 

Michoacto 

Hidalgo 

Puebla 

....do 

Tamaulipas 

Guanajuato 

Yucatan 

Chihuahua 

Puebla 

Tamaulipas 

Durango 

Tamaulipas 

Zacatecas 

Morelos 

Jalisco 

Yucatan 

Chiapas 

Puebla 

Guerrero 

San Luis PotosI . . 

do 

Guerrero 

Sonora 

Mexico 

Jalisco.... 

Chiapas 

Jalisco 

San Luis Potosi.. 

Quer6taro 

Guerrero 

Veracruz 

Chiapas 

Puebla 

Michoacto 

Sonora 

Tamaulipasl 

Guanajuato 

Jalisco 

Chiapas 

Guanajuato 

Quer^taro 

Oaxaca 

Yucat&n 

Puebla 

Veracruz 

Federal District . 

Oaxaca 

Guanajuato 

Gueriero 



Popula- 
tion. 



8,754 
8,747 
8,710 
8,633 
8,623 
8,549 
8,635 
8,474 
8,472 
8,443 
8,326 
8,318 
8,303 
8,256 
8,183 
7,974 
7,936 
7,782 
7,698 
7,568 
7,558 
7,440 
7,400 
7,275 
7,269 
7,220 
7,212 
7,184 
7,167 
7,114 
7,113 
7,111 
7,090 
7,082 
7,079 
7,053 
7,031 
7,022 
6,958 
6,934 
6,917 
6,913 
6,871 
6,859 
6,815 
6,757 
6,756 
6,763 
6,739 
6,715 
6,699 
6,631 
6,628 
6,589 
6,588 
6,569 
6,551 
6,466 
6, 455 
6,338 
6,333 
6,324 
6,312 
6,299 
6,291 
6,226 
6,207 
6,197 
6,137 
6,097 
6,994 
6,977 
6,949 
5, 929 
5,924 
5,911 
6,883 
5,865 
5,846 
5,814 
5,789 
5,780 



142 MEXICO. 

lAst of the principal cities and towns of Mexico, with their population, etc. — Continued. 



City or town. 



TlacotflJpan 

Carmen 

Venado 

San Juan de los Llanos 
Soledad Diez Gutierrez 

Moroleon 

Tizapdn el Alto 

Tilxpan 

Ococingo 

Guerrero 

Encarnacion 

Actopan 

Colotkln 

Ojitlfln 

Atotonilco el Alto 

Morelos (Cuautla) 

Tenango del Valle 

San Fernando 

JimiSnez 

Tlacolula , 

TacAmbaro 

Arandas 

Guadalupe Hidalgo . . . 

Ahualulco 

Bustamante 

Comonfort 

Ejutla 

La Canada 

Lampazos 

Metepec 

CuetzaMn 

Jdlpan 

Rio Grande 

Chiaut^mpan 



Vercacruz 

Campeche 

San Luis Potosi . 

Puebla 

San Luis Potosi . 

Guanajuato 

Jalisco 

Veracruz 

Chiapas 

Tamaulipas 

Jalisco •- 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Oaxaea 

Jalisco 

Morelos 

Mexico 

Tamaulipas 

Chihuahua 

Oaxaea 

Michoac&n 

Jalisco 

Federal District 

Jalisco 

Tamaulipas 

Guanajuato 

Oaxaea 

Queretaro 

Nuevo Leon 

Mexico 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

Zacatecas 

Tlaxcala 



Popula- 
tion. 



5,770 
6,767 
6,750 
5,742 
5,730 
5,716 
5,708 
5,697 
5,667 
5,664 
5,656 
5,635 
5,590 
6,583 
5,551 
5,538 
5,465 
5,383 
5,381 
5,377 
5,369 
5,367 
5,318 
5,302 
5,260 
5,260 
5,254 
5,232 
5,197 
5,189 
5,176 
5,131 
5,008 
5,006 



CHAPTER VII. 

AGRICUIiTTJRE. 

Mexico has been estimated to contain 479 square leagues of thick 
forests, 18,134 square leagues of wooded land, and 40,822 square leagues 
of uncultivated land. 

Frederick A. Ober, in one of his works, draws attention to the fact 
that its shape on the map is that of a cornucopia, and calls the Aztec 
land a "horn of plenty" — a most appropriate simile. Nature has cer- 
tainly showered her gifts upon the Republic with lavish hand. Her 
mines are practically inexhaustible, her forests rich in every variety 
of precious woods, her soil blessed with wonderful fecundity. 

Yet with all these natural conditions in their favor the Mexicans for 
more than two centuries delved into the bowels of the earth in search 
of silver and gold, and. left the fields to lie fallow and the forests 
untouched, save where their products were needed for purely domestic 
purposes. The far-seeing Spanish Bishop Zumarraga recognized this 
when he addressed to the Council of the Indies the words following: 

' ' This country is very rich, very fertile, and thickly populated. It con- 
tains gold, silver, copper, tin, precious stones, pearls, dyestuffs, andlands 
abundantly producing whatever is needed. Nevertheless the Indians 
are the poorest people in the world, for they have neither wool, hemp, 
nor flax; nor have they beasts of burden. Wherefore, as bishop of 
Mexico, I feel bound to beg the gentlemen of the council to make an 
earnest effort looking to their enjoyment of these benefits. He who 
would reap must first sow; but if, on the contrary, the tilling of the 
soil is neglected, to engage solely in the working of mines, the ruin of 
the country is certain." 

It has been stated that had the money which has been spent in min- 
ing in the countiy been invested in agriculture, Mexico would have 
been at least four times as rich as it is to-day. It has to go to the 
United States for its corn, hogs, and other necessaries of life. The 
vegetable products of the country are varied in the extreme, owing to 
the diversified climate. Its productiveness is perhaps unsurpassed by 
any other countrj'^ on the globe. The soil produces all the cereals and 
all the fruits of the United States and Europe, besides those properly 
incident to the Tropics. 

Mexico, enjoying as it does a peculiar geographical situation and 
orography, may be divided into three agricultural zones or regions, 

143 



144 MEXICO. 

which may be designated, according to their principal productions, as 
follows: 

(1) The sugar cane and rubber region in the lowlands. 

(2) The coffee region in the temperate lands. 

(3) The region producing the European cereals in the central table- 
lands. 

The most fertile region, that which is almost spontaneously pro- 
ductive, is unquestionably the first, although it is the one which entails 
the most suffering, owing to the climate and the insects. 

In this favored locality the soil is marvelously rich. In official 
reports to the Department of Promotion appear statements which to 
those unacquainted with that portion of our continent would seem 
incredible. An agent of that Department, reporting upon the lands 
in the southern part of the State of Oaxaca, states that on a sugar 
plantation in the district of Pochutla there have been found stalks of 
sugar cane 30 feet in height; that the tobacco plant, which grows wild 
there, has leaves 25 to 30 inches in length; that along the Toltepec 
River basin, in the same district, the coffee trees reach the height of 
large trees and produce 12 pounds to the tree. Certain wild rubber 
trees yield yearly 10 pounds of the dry substance. The vanilla plant 
grows wild also, and is excellent in quality. Three crops of corn can 
be taken from the same field in one year. Beans are so abundant that 
they are often sold in the neighborhood at the rate of 25 cents per 
100 pounds. There are 18 species of bananas and many kinds of palms, 
one of them yielding a much-sought palm oil. One party imbued 
with great patience counted 5,000 limes on one wild lime tree. 

Along the river bottoms of this well- watered region are millions of 
acres of land having a layer of humic soil 13 to 16 feet deep. 

In this fertile belt are the States of Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, Cam- 
peche, Veracruz, and Guerrero, the principal agricultural products of 
which are cacao, coffee, sugar cane, corn, beans, and rice, which are 
abundant, and tobacco, rubber, pepper, and achiote, cultivated on a 
smaller scale. Rubber, vanilla, pepper, and achiote grow wild also. 
The yucca plant, from which starch is made, is found here in great 
quantities. 

Forests of precious woods are encountered throughout this region. 
The State of Tabasco exported in 1890 cabinet woods to the extent of 
6,511 tons, and dyewoods and plants to the limit of 7,537,400 pounds. 
Of late years this exportation has considerably increased. One of the 
important articles raised in- Chiapas is indigo. 

The temperate belt, although affording greater personal comforts in 
the way of climate and health-giving elements, is poorly watered, and 
the lands are not so fertile as in the hot region. 

The cold zone is less fertile still, due to the absence of streams and 
the scarcity of rains. 



MEXICO. 145 

The latest available report of the Department of Promotion of Mex- 
ico, embracing a period of four years, from 1892 to 1896,^ says, in the 
chapter devoted to agriculture, that the high lands in the Central Plateau 
can produce all known varieties of wheat, maize, beans, and tubercles, as 
well as the agave (maguey) and grapes, and are also adapted to stock 
raising and the exploitation of forest woods. Bice, sugar cane, tropical 
fruits, cacao, rubber, and cabinet woods can be produced in the hot 
region, while in the temperate zone (between 500 and 1,000 meters 
altitude) coffee grows abundantly, and all the fruits of the earth can be 
cultivated. The report continues: 

"Speaking with regard to special districts, it may be affirmed that 
Oaxaca and Chiapas have no rival (Brazil, even, being included) in the 
production of excellent grades of coffee in unlimited quantities; Vera- 
cruz and Tabasco, on the Gulf side, and the Territory of Tepic, on the 
Pacific, are actually capable of replacing Cuba in the quality of its 
tobacco and the bulk of the product; Michoacan in one section, and 
Chihuahua, Sonora, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas in another, could sup- 
ply food for millions of cattle, and Durango, Jalisco, Guanajuato, 
Puebla, and the State of Mexico are capable of raising corn and wheat 
in almost unlimited areas, and of supplying foreign markets with a 
large portion of their articles of consumption from cold and temper- 
ate zones, and also with some products of the Tropics. Should we 
add to these the specialties of certain regions, such as Yucatan for 
henequen or hemp, Tlaxcala and Puebla for maguey (agave), Tamauli- 
pas for ixtle, Coahuila for vines, and Soconusco for cacao, an approxi- 
mate idea may be obtained of the incalculable importance of Mexico 
as an agricultural country. Notwithstanding this, it may be said that 
national agriculture, even in the face of its recent progress, is yet in 
its infancy and that the soil has only been cultivated on a very limited 
scale. Neither the proportion between the area now under cultivation 
and the arable land, the methods, machinery, and implements now 
employed in the fields, nor the methods now in use for the exploita- 
tion and preparation of certain agricultural products are, in general 
terms, satisfactory. Our export trade is almost nihil, save for prod 
ucts as valuable as coffee and fruits, or as cheaply produced as hene- 
quen, or as near the centers of consumption as cattle; and even those 
mentioned as exported in the largest quantities, are not as extensi\^ely 
cultivated as is desirable, nor as cheaply as the country would permit." 

There are two main causes of this state of affairs — lack of laborers 
and of means of communication, both restricting consumption to an 
extent which necessarily limits the variety of production and giving 
preference to ordinary products over those which are finer and more 
valuable. The mountainous and broken formation of the country has 

^Memoria de la Secretaria de Fomento, 1892-1896. Mexico, 1897, page 101, Section V. 
65lA 10 



146 MEXICO. 

always been, and is at the present time to a certain extent an 
obstacle to rapid and economic transportation of merchandise, as it 
hinders the establishment of permanent currents of traffic, either by 
land or water, and deprives the agriculturist of the advantages of 
natural irrigation in certain regions, which are for this reason arid 
and impassable deserts. 

The report quoted states that another factor in the slow develop- 
ment of agriculture in the country has been the ignorance of the 
farming population in the matter of the preparation of the soil and 
the use of fertilizers and other improved methods of cultivation. 

The Government of Mexico has shown a decided interest in improv- 
ing these conditions, and for several years the Department of Promo- 
tion has been endeavoring to disseminate among the agricultural 
classes information tending to educate them, teaching them improved 
and scientific methods of cultivation, irrigation, fertilization, and 
drainage of the soil, and calling their attention to those products 
which could be advantageously cultivated in the dijfferent zones of the 
Republic. "With this object in view, the Department issues a monthly 
bulletin of agriculture, mining, and industries, and publishes from 
time to time important works on special subjects, which are exten- 
sively circulated among the agriculturists. The results accomplished 
by these publications have been most favorable to the agricultural 
interests of the country, so far having occasioned the establishment 
and development of the culture of the grape and other fruits and of 
forage plants, and also the introduction of apiculture and sericulture. 
In order to further the agricultural interests of the Republic, the 
Department has imported, for gratuitous distribution among the most 
advanced agriculturists, seeds and plants, and has also encouraged 
agricultural fairs and expositions. The distribution began with vine 
shoots and olive-tree slips and other plants, the cultivation of which 
is giving excellent results. The cultivation of the grape has received 
especial impetus in the States of Coahuila, Chihuahua, and Guanajuato. 

At the beginning of 1892 there were imported 1,030,000 shoots of 
the vine (simple) and 11,000 with roots, which were distributed among 
the States of Coahuila, Chiahuahua, and other points on the Central 
Plateau and the south of the Republic. This was attended with excel- 
lent results, and toward the end of the fiscal year 1893 shoots to the 
number of 3,500,000 were imported, principally from Lower Califor- 
nia, together with 72,000 olive slips and 16,000 other fruit-bearing 
trees. The distribution has continued, the shoots and slips of trees 
already acclimated being also used for the purpose. 

In certain localities the cork tree {Quercus suber) has been intro- 
duced, as well as the "Choro-gi" {Ilachystu'bifera)^ an excellent tuber 
of the potato family indigenous to Germany. Seeds of the fodder plant 
called Zacaton de Guinea have also been imported and distributed. 



MEXICO. 147 

This plant requires but little care and irrigation, and its cultivation 
on Mexican soil has been very successful. Seeds of the " Riga" flax 
have been imported and distributed with a view to encouraging the 
cultivation of the plant and the establishment of the industries derived 
from its exploitation. 

For the purpose of establishing the silkworm industry in the coun- 
try, seeds of the best varieties of the mulberry tree for gratuitous 
distribution were imported from Italy, the results so far obtained 
being satisfactory. Chinese and Japanese cocoons were ordered from 
San Francisco,* Cal., but the latter varieties were not obtainable, as 
the Japanese Government has prohibited their exportation. Cocoons 
of a good quality have been imported from France and distributed 
gratis. The results obtained in this branch of industry were shown 
at the Sericultural Exposition held in Irapuato in 1895, when the quan- 
tity and quality of the Mexican product attracted great attention. 
The silk industry may therefore now be regarded as existent in the 
country, its development having been noteworthy, and the product 
remarkable for beauty and finish. Distribution has also been made, 
among such agriculturists as applied for them, of seeds of kaffir, 
tobacco, sugar cane, agave, and flax. 

The efforts of the Department to promote the agricultural interests 
of the country have not been confined to the importation and distri- 
bution of seeds and plants. Research and investigation have been 
extended to various industries, among others the cultivation of sugar 
cane and the manufacture of its products; also, apiculture and the 
cultivation of coffee, cotton, sesamam or benne seed, leguminous plants, 
and tubers have received attention. Frequent studies have been made 
of the diseases and plagues affecting certain plants, and the results have 
been published and extensively circulated among interested parties. 

The preservation of the national forests, their replanting, and method- 
ical exploitation, have been matters of interest and investigation on the 
part of the Department of Promotion, as the indiscriminate felling of 
trees at all seasons was gradually destroying the forests; this being 
especially the case since the advent of railroads and the increased 
number of industrial establishments using timber instead of iron as 
constructive material, and wood instead of coal as fuel, the latter com- 
bustible not being obtainable at a fair price in sufiicient quantities. 
A law has been enacted on this subject, the regulations stating in 
detail the duties of the ofiicers appointed by the Government to the 
care of the forests; the rules and principles to which the exploitation 
of the forests and their products are subjected; the rules to be followed 
in making contracts and in cutting down the trees, and also creating a 
reservation of national lands for forestry, allotting 2,311,445 hectares 
to the State of Chihuahua and 203,635 to the State of Chiapas. 

With the same object of fostering the agricultural interests of the 



148 MEXICO. 

country, several agricultural expositions have been very successfully 
held and prizes have been awarded to the best exhibitors, and fairs for 
the exhibition of cattle, implements, machinery, agricultural products 
in general, flowers, fishes, fruits, etc., have contributed to the same 
ends. During these fairs the plan of giving lectures on several topics 
was adopted, viz, on the usefulness of stock raising; the cross-breeding 
and acclimatization of cattle; the usefulness and value of agricultural 
machinery; on sericulture, horticulture, and other important subjects. 

One of the most important problems to be solved affecting the rapid 
development of agriculture in Mexico is the lack of proper irrigation, 
which can only be compared in magnitude to the scarcity of labor. 
Mexican territory, owing to its topography, has no natural irrigation. 
The land rises abruptly from the coast to a habitable altitude of over 
3,000 meters, thus creating a serious and insurmountable obstacle both 
to the retention and gradual absorption of the rain waters which are 
precipitated over the rough surface of the land, passing with great 
rapidity over the fields and river beds in their course to the sea, leav- 
ing behind a deplorable and ruinous drought, and in some places an 
almost perpetual aridity. An extended rainy season is of especial 
necessity to the profitable cultivation of the soil in all the central 
table-land, the cold region, and in a large portion of the temperate 
region, but when the rainfall is scanty, as is the case in extensive sec- 
tions of the northern frontier and in other regions, viz, the States of 
San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas, or when there is any alteration in its 
period, the crops are lost, the cattle suffer and the consequences are 
felt in all other industries. Under these circumstances, the Mexican 
Government realized that a matter of such vital importance could not 
be left entirely to private initiative, and therefore framed a law bearing 
date of June 5, 1888, authorizing the Executive to grant concessions, 
either to private parties or to companies, for the use of the waters of 
the Republic for irrigation purposes or as motive power in industries. 

The privileges granted by these concessions are: 

(1) Exemption for five years from all Federal taxes, the stamp tax 
excepted, on all moneys invested in the survey, construction, and 
repairs of the works mentioned in the concession. 

(2) The introduction, free of import duties, for the first time only, 
of the machinery, scientific instruments, and necessary apparatus for 
the survey, construction, and exploitation of said works. 

(3) The right to occupy gratuitously the public and national lands 
for the passage of canals and for the construction of dams or dikes 
and reservoirs. 

(4) The right to expropriate for public utility any lands belonging 
to private parties, indemnification being previously made on the same 
basis as that governing railroad concessions. 

The concessionaires are under the following obligations: 



MEXICO. 149 

(1) To make a deposit or surety in bonds of the public debt. 

(2) To submit for the approval of the Department of Promotion the 
plans, outlines, and reports describing the work. 

(3) To respect the rights of third parties, submitting any differences 
to the action of the courts, and to admit and defray the expenses of 
any inspecting engineer appointed by the Executive. 

The law also authorizes the Executive to grant free entry into the 
country of the machinery and apparatus necessary to the employ 
of the waters, either for agricultural or industrial purposes, if the 
concession has been granted by a State, provided the companies give 
security for the performance of the work in accordance with the rules 
and limitations established by the Federal Executive. On the 18th of 
September, 1896, this law was regulated by another, which has given 
excellent results, many of the old concessionaires having taken advan- 
tage of its provisions. These laws have been framed not only to pro- 
vide for the irrigation of the lands, but also for the use of the water 
as motive power, thus opening a new and extended future to the indus- 
trial progress of the Eepublic. 

At the time of the conquest, according to the historian Bancroft,^ 
the only European cereal raised in Mexico to any extent was wheat, 
and although the climatic conditions were propitious, the lack of mois- 
ture, which could only be overcome by irrigation, would frequently 
hinder its cultivation. Nothwithstanding this drawback, the yield 
exceeded the average returns obtained in Europe, being, in some 
instances, as high as seventy or eighty fold. One of the varieties, • 
which was cultivated chiefly in the neighborhood of Puebla, and called 
trigo Uanquillo, was remarkable for its abundant yield. In 1677 its 
cultivation was forbidden by a decree of the Viceroy and "Audiencia" 
as injurious to health, but it was resumed in 1692. 

The transportation facilities offered by the great American railroad 
systems has given great impetus to the raising of this grain, and 
Mexico is becoming a wheat-growing country. Wheat grows on the 
plateau of Mexico at an elevation of from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above 
sea level and between the eighteenth and twenty-fourth parallels of 
latitude. The area best adapted to its cultivation comprises some 
52,000 square miles, over one-third of which could be planted in wheat 
without serious detriment to the other agricultural interests of the 
country. This land is situated in the States of Michoacan, Jalisco, 
Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, and Queretaro. 

The Mexican plan of cultivation makes it possible to take off the 
land three crops every two years — one crop of wheat and two crops 
of corn. The average yield of wheat per acre is about 20 bushels and 
of corn about 50 bushels on irrigated soils and about 30 to 35 on dry 

1 History of Mexico, Vol. Ill, Chap. XXIX, p. 611, 1883. 



150 



MEXICO. 



lands. These are considered conservative figures. Were this wheat 
area cultivated to its fullest capacity, the wheat and corn yield of one- 
third of the 52,000 square miles of suitable lands would be: Wheat, 
110,000,000 bushels, and corn, 140,000,000 bushels per year, accord- 
ing to a conservative estimate made in 1883. This immense yield 
would all be available for foreign markets, as the home consumption 
could be always provided for b}^ the outlying lands. Since the date 
of this estimate improved machinery and more systematic treatment 
of the soil have considerably increased the yield of the lands devoted 
to the cultivation of the cereals mentioned, which are by no means all 
that could be utilized in this way. 

Indian corn is the most abundant cereal, growing almost everywhere 
in the country, in some places three crops a year being raised, as stated 
above. It is eminently a Mexican staple, serving as nutriment for 
man and beast, and forming the "staff of life" for the majority of the 
inhabitants in the form of cakes, called tortillas. 

The following tables, taken from a statistical work published by the 
Mexican Government,^ gives the yield in kilograms and hectoliters^ 
of four of the cereal products in all the States, and the value of the 
same, expressed in Mexican silver, in the year 1897: 



Aguascalientes. . 
Baja California . 

Campeche 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Federal District. 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

MichoacAn 

Morelos 

NuevoLedn 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Quer6taro 

San Luis PotosI . 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tepic 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

Yucat&n 

Zacatecas 



States. 



Rice. 



Kilograms. Value 



311,256 
'6,' 076," 766' 



238, 027 

31, 300 

352, 114 

1,867 

4, 352, 550 

3, 730, 076 



70, 631 
680, 922 



40, 840 



f45, 495 
'608,' 210' 



24, 643 

5,248 

33, 471 

298 

362, 702 

381,592 



12, 911 
119, .557 



Barley. 



Hectoliters. 



1,105 
2,050 

53,647 
2,220 

32, 987 



93, 633 

6,170 

107, 287 



898, 836 
43, 185 

589, 859 

60, 421 

1,671 

15. 884 
42, 575 

790, 122 
16, 162 

17. 885 
1,124 

20, 751 



Value. 



$1, 294 
10, 270 
161, 131 
4,086 
57,728 



182, 108 
19,310 
194,390 



1, 222, 114 
67, 170 

1,070,834 

96,548 

8,937 

34, 992 

97,072 

1,620,721 

30,255 

28, 112 

3,572 

79,989 



Total. 



720, 130 

176,816 

3, 132, 083 



88, 484 

32, 595 

302, 737 



1,292,690 



230, 507 



1,000 

1,532 

268, 815 

7,626 



39, 932 



21, 136, 002 



2,254,462 



3, 116, 479 



2,000 

1,896 

412, 699 

15, 636 



80, 379 



2,503,243 



^ Anuario Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana, 1897. Mexico, 1898. 

^ A kilogram is equal to 2.2046 pounds; a hectoliter is equal to 2.8379 bushels. 



MEXICO. 



151 



Corn. 



Hectoliters. Value. 



Wheat. 



Kilograms. Value. 



Aguascalientes. 
Baja California. 

Campeche 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Federal District 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Michoacto 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Quer(5taro 

San Luis Potosi . 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tepic. 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

YucatAn 

Zacatecas 

Total 



171, 243 

8,648 

136, 900 

945, 268 

243, 891 

1, 072, 290 

203, 205 

663, 082 

917, 146 

4, 042, 010 

925, 743 

3, 764, 455 

5, 844, 947 

1, 580, 368 

2, 756, 881 

272, 485 

676, 169 

1,383,194 

1, 898, 311 

688, 467 

1, 735, 504 

2,251,697 

222, 939 

967, 583 

707,373 

445, 524 

334, 869 

3, 952, 300 

2, 873, 488 

1, 268, 704 



42, 95i, 684 



$307, 940 

37, 385 

208, 500 

2, 648, 712 

580, 661 

1, 133, 251 

308, 181 

1,450,002 

2, 089, 700 

7, 028, 905 

1,527,008 

10,981,972 

9, 494, 293 

4, 383, 629 

4, 766, 072 

609, 197 

1,521,416 

4, 619, 556 

5, 595, 317 

1,577,990 

3,341,212 

6, 142, 898 

632, 598 

592, 407 

911,534 

647, 224 

1,143,928 

4, 387, 592 

6, 743, 255 

2, 822, 336 



1,168,845 
2, 838, 947 



786, 056 
4, 345, 649 
17, 260, 855 
195, 261 
9, 663, 681 
55, 360, 762 



4, 937, 316 

29, 695, 974 

29, 984, 886 

35, 745, 573 

50, 271 

3, 078, 763 

3,341,341 

22, 252, 455 

11, 320, 746 

706, 702 

124, 291 

19, 544, 145 



10, 960 

7, 262, 218 

322, 000 



3, 989, 350 



87, 232, 671 



263,987,047 



S63, 548 
171, 556 



94, 060 
517, 148 
979, 849 

11, 597 

602, 320 

5, 189, 945 



312, 028 

2, 409, 425 

1,980,612 

1, 740, 793 

3,071 

143, 542 

220, 004 

1,414,404 

858, 736 

43, 759 

7,635 

950, 357 



1,120 
726, 220 
28, 175 



210, 571 



18, 680, 475 



The high price of corn in Mexico is due to the fact that, as a rule, 
the Indian raises only enough to supply his wants, and does not enter 
the market as a seller. In June, 1897, corn in the City of Mexico was 
worth 11.50 per bushel, and had been quoted at that price for three 
years previous. In parts of the State of Veracruz the price ranged 
from II to 11.35 per bushel. 

Over a million dollars' worth of corn was sent to Mexico from the 
United States in the year 1896. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 
1899, the corn shipments to Mexico from the same country were 
154,644 bushels, valued at $63,412. 

Mexican wheat is small and hard, and when properly milled makes 
good flour. Specimens of this wheat exhibited at the Centennial 
Exposition of Philadelphia in 1876 took the first prize. 

Mexican coffee is of excellent quality; that produced in Uruapam 
(Michoacan) and m the State of Colima has been classed with Mocha. 
It is claimed that it is possible to so increase the raising of coffee that 
Mexico can supply more of the aromatic bean to the markets of the 
world than all other countries combined, save only Brazil. The 
immense area adapted to its cultivation may be estimated when it is 
known that it grows both in the hot and temperate belts. Heretofore 
Mexico occupied the fourth place among the countries importing coffee 
into the United States, which is her best market. Now, it is asserted, 
she immediately follows Brazil, which stands first. Within the last 
ten years this Mexican product has risen from the fifth to the third 
place in point of quality. 



152 MEXICO. 

Coffee is not indigenous to the countiy , but it was originall}^ brought 
from the West Indies about 1790. Still, it was not until 1818 that the 
plant was properly cultivated, when Don Juan A. Gomez, called the 
Benefactor of Cordoba, demonstrated that Mexico had the soil and 
climate essential to the cultivation of coffee. The berr}^ is mostly 
raised in Colima, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoa- 
can, Morelos, San Luis Potosi, Tabasco, and Veracruz.^ 

^ "The coffee plant, mostly cultivated in Mexico, is a sub variety of the Mocha, or 
Coffea arabica. This is an evergeen, partaking more of the nature of a shrub, which 
in a state of cultivation varies in height from 5 to 7 feet. The range of this species 
is at elevations of from 1,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, south of latitude 22° 
north, where the temperature does not fall below 55° F. ; still, the most favorable 
climate for it would be where the temperature does not fall below 60° nor rise above 
80° in the shade; as to humidity, there should be from 75 to 150 inches of rain dur- 
ing the year, and the plant should be irrigated during the dry season, if required. 
The myrtle kind, which is considered as second in quality, is also extensively culti- 
vated. It is very similar to the Java, and is distinguished from the Mocha variety 
by the leaf being larger and the corolla smaller. This plant is hardier than the 
Mocha kind and will stand higher temperature; it is mostly cultivated in the Cordoba 
district. It will thrive well at an elevation of from 500 to 3,000 feet above sea level. 
It is the opinion of the writer that Liberian coffee would thrive in the hot climates 
of Yucatan, Campeche, Tabasco, and Veracruz. This is the hardiest of all the coffee 
trees adapted to the climates of Mexico, and will stand a very high temperature. 

' 'As the coffee tree has a long taproot, it will thrive better on land where the soil 
is deep. The best soil in Mexico is a well-drained, loamy one, either of a virgin 
mountainous composition, or of a volcanic nature, rich in humus. A rocky soil, 
where the earth is deep between the rocks, is very suitable, and less manuring is 
then required for the plants, as the rocks are continually adding to the soil by the 
decomposing action of the air, rain, and other natural forces. The climate most 
adaptable to coffee in Mexico is that found in the mountainous regions, with a range 
of temperature from 55° to 86° F. The best coffee is grown at elevations varying 
from 2,200 to 4,500 feet above the sea, in sections south of Veracruz; but in loca- 
tions below latitude 21° north, the north limit of the coffee zone on the Gulf side, 
the climate being cooler, the bush requires lower elevations, ranging from 600 to 
3,000 feet. The plant is, however, cultivated by some planters at much lower levels, 
and even within a few miles from the seashore. For instance, in Misantla, Acayucdn, 
Minatitliin, and Tuxtla, Veracruz; and in Ciirdenas, Comalcalco, Cunduacdn, 
Nacayuca, and San Juan Bautista, Tabasco. An extremely wet climate is not favor- 
able to the coffee plant, and it will not thrive in very exposed situations. If proper 
aspect as regards sun and winds can not be obtained, the exposure can nearly always 
be modified by shelter belts of trees. On the Pacific side the prevailing south winds 
must be avoided at low elevations, and on this side the tree can be planted at much 
higher elevations, as the range which branches off at Jalisco and joins the Toluca 
Mountain and the Popocatepetl Peak breaks off the cold north winds and shelters 
the regions below it. As to direct sun exposure, when it is desirable to take advan- 
tage of the heat at high elevations, it is always convenient to acquire, as far as possible, 
a southern exposure; but where the elevation is low and the temperature is high, such 
an exposure would be injurious to the plant, in which case it is better to procure an 
eastern exposxire. Generally, the action of the rains modifies the temperature in 
the Tropics, and at elevations between 2,000 and 4,500 feet above sea level clouds 
gather along the mountains almost every day before the rays of the noon sun bear 
their strong influence in those localities. On the Gulf side, the trees that have an 



MEXICO. 



153 



Mr. Matias Romero, who for many years devoted his attention to 
coffee culture, estimated the results of coffee raising as follows: 



In India . . 
In Ceylon, 
In M6xico 



Cost of 

planting a 

tree. 



.20i 

.23 

.12 



Annual 

product of 

a tree. 



.4563 
.4563 



Expense of 

cultivating 

one tree. 



Net 
profit. 



Fer cent. 
25.49 
25.15 
90 



Romero's averages have been considered too high as regards the 
cost of cultivation and too low as regards the annual yield. In an offi- 
cial publication^ appears the statement that in the State of Chiapas, 
where the land is good, and care and economy have been exercised in 
the cultivation, the following have been the results: 

Annual expense of cultivation (one tree) $0. 01 

Annual yield for each tree pounds. . 10 

In the State of Oaxaca on one plantation 21 months after planting, 
the trees yielded 3 pounds of dry coffee each. 

In the District of Choapam, of the same State, the average crop is 
6 pounds of coffee for each tree, and there are trees producing 25 
pounds of dry coffee a year. Romero takes 1 pound as the average 
yield of Mexican coffee trees. In arriving at this figure he takes into 
consideration all kinds of coffee plantations, those laid out in poor 
localities, in poor seasons, and improperly cultivated; but it appears 
to be pretty well settled that good lands, cultivated under proper con- 
ditions, will render crops of from 4 to 10 pounds per tree. Col. E. C. 
More, late United States consul-general to Mexico, agrees with Romero 
in that, under present conditions, the profits of coff'ee raising are 90 
per cent per annum; but that they differ largely in the several belts 
devoted to the culture of the bean is evidenced by the fact that an 
American coffee expert of Fortin and Cordoba, State of Veracruz, 
states that the profits reach 150 per cent. The bean sells, according 
to class, at from 124 to $32 per hundredweight, Mexican money. In 
the Huasteca Potosina section of Veracruz coffee planting during the 
past three years has increased at the rate of 60 per cent a year. Gen- 
erally it costs $7, silver, to raise, pick, clean, and sack a hundred- 
weight of coffee. The selling price averages $27 per hundredweight 
on the ground. The product per acre is from 250 to 500 pounds. The 
value of the exports to all countries in 1897 was $10,649,119. 

The first recorded exportation of coff'ee from Mexico to the United 
States was in 1825, amounting in value to $216,850. The same coun- 

eastern sun exposure, so that the sun strikes them during the morning, thrive better 
and yield more." — (Production of coffee in Mexico, TJ. S. Consular Eeports, Vol. LII, 
Sept., 1896, pp. 103-121.^ 
^Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, K. de Zayas Enriquez, Mexico, 1893, p. 458. 



154 



MEXICO. 



try furnished the latter, during- the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898, 
34,721,168 pounds of coffee. The total yield during the year 1897 
was estimated at 48,145,492 pounds. 

Americans are taking up large tracts of land to be planted in coffee 
trees. The American Coffee Trading and Planting Company, of New 
York, has 60,000 trees already set out and has 1,500,000 more m 
a nursery on the Coatzacoalcos River. Another American company 
has purchased 6,175 acres in Chiapas, where they propose planting 
1,000,000 coffee trees. Still another company was organized in St. 
Louis, Mo., in April, 1897, under the name of the Tehuantepec Coffee 
Culture Company, to conduct operations upon a recently purchased 
plantation on the Grijalva River, State of Chiapas. New York capital- 
ists have bought a plantation near Cordoba, Veracruz, containing 
480,000 coffee trees. 

Official statistics published by the Department of Promotion^ for 
1897 give the following figures relative to the production of coffee in 
Mexico for that year: 



Quantity in 
kilograms. 



Value 

(Mexican 

silver). 



Veracruz 

Oaxaca 

Chiapas 

Puebla 

San Luis Potosi 

Miclioacto 

Tepic 

Jalisco 

Hidalgo 

Total 



14, 302, 714 
2, 770, 305 
2, 465, 100 
704, 194 
443, 625 
363, 401 
263, 816 
166, 481 
156, 046 



$4, 416, 618 

1, 249, 176 

1, 427, 950 

503, 338 

63, 655 

210, 457 

146, 285 

83, 350 

55, 749 



21, 838, 659 



8, 282, 028 



The other States, excepting Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato, Nuevo 
Leon, Queretaro, Yucatan, and Zacatecas, not listed, produced less than 
100,000 kilograms each. 

The tobacco plant (the yetl of the Aztecs) is indigenous to Mexico. 
Its cultivation and use soon became known among the Spaniards and 
was not seriously restricted for nearly two centuries after the con- 
quest. In 1764 the Crown appropriated the right to the sale and manu- 
facture of the plant, its culture being confined to the districts of Ori- 
zaba, Cordoba, Huatusco, and Zongolica, severe penalties being fixed 
for its cultivation elsewhere. The product was purchased by the Gov- 
ernment at a stipulated price, which in turn sold the leaf at a profit of 
about 200 per cent. The revenues derived from this monopoly in 
1783 amounted to $777,651; in 1792, to $684,109; in 1794, to $773,442, 
and in 1801-02, about $4,000,000 (silver). Under the Spanish regime 
factories were established in several cities, the principal being situated 
in Mexico and Queretaro, each employing about 7,000 persons of both 
sexes, with an aggregate pay roll of more than $700,000 a year. The 

^ Anuario Estadf stico de la Eepublica Mexicana. 



MEXICO. 155 

annual product of these establishments amounted to nearly $7,500,000, 
about one-half of which belonged to the Crown. 

In 1868 several foreign cultivators and manufacturers,^ principally 
Cuban, went to Mexico, where they began to cultivate the plant on an 
extensive scale. Not a little of the success attained in this industry is 
due to Frenchmen, as a French writer, Louis Lejeune, in a pamphlet 
on the subject, first drew attention to the fact that the tobacco grown 
in the upper valley of the Papal oapan Eiver produced leaves as fine 
and silky and even more aromatic than those of the Vuelta Abajo, in 
Cuba, In his pamphlet Mr. Lejeune made an elaborate comparison of 
the relative cost of starting a tobacco plantation in Cuba and in Mex- 
ico, showing that with silver at par, as was the case at the time of his 
writing, the expenses in Mexico were only about one-half as great as 
in Cuba, not taking into account the price of land and the cost of 
transportation. At the Paris Exposition (1889) the Mexican product 
obtained gold, silver, and bronze medals, being considered equal to, if 
not the superior of Havana tobacco. In 1894 and 1895, "La Regie," 
a department created in France to regulate the importation and traffic 
of tobacco, began to accept the Mexican product. 

In 1887-88 the exports of Mexican tobacco, both in the leaf and in a 
manufactured form, amounted to 764,121 kilograms, valued at $830,363; 
in 1890-91 to 1,041,962 kilograms, valued at $1,605,446, and in 1896-97 
to 1,770,136 kilograms, with a valuation of $2,720,091, Mexican silver. 

The home consumption of the commodity increased in the three 
years from 1893 to 1896 from 12,000,000 pounds to more than 17,000,000, 
the Federal district alone taking 4,200,000 pounds during the latter 
year. Mexican tobacco goes from its home to Cuba, there to be 
exported as a Cuban product. 

The total exports during the fiscal year 1897-98 were 7,710,183 
pounds, valued at $4,489,768, as against 3,902,440 pounds in 1896-97, 
valued at $2,720,091. The total production of leaf tobacco in 1897 
was 19,744,426 pounds, valued at $2,985,920. In January, 1896, the 
leaf tobacco exported by Mexico was valued at $10,153; in January, 
1897, the exports amounted to $104,110, a gain of $93,957. 

The Mexican tobacco has a flavor peculiarly its own, and it grows 
upon one, and where it has been used for any length of time, as upon 
the Western coast of the United States, it is rapidly superseding the 
Cuban article. 

Tobacco is raised along the mountain country Ij^ing between Victoria, 
State of Tamaulipas, and Campeche, capital of the State of the same 
name, also on the Pacific slope of the States of Chiapas, Oaxaca, 
Guerrero, Michoacan, Jalisco, Colima, Sonora, and the Territory of 
Tepic. It is likewise cultivated in the interior districts of Morelos, 
Michoacan, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Tabasco, Guerrero, Jalisco, 

^Mexican Tobacco— U. S. Consular Eeports, 1896, Vol. LII, pp. 612-617. 



156 MEXICO. 

Colima, and the territory last above named. In addition to the parts 
named, the Government maps show 113 different cantons, or small 
districts, where the "weed" is now being cultivated. In the virgin 
valleys along the rivers of the States on the Pacific slope the plant 
may find the elements which best meet its requirements. 

In order to produce an aromatic and mild as well as large and fine 
leaf it is necessaiy that the soil should be sandy, well charged with 
organic vegetable matter in decomposition, and contain oxides of iron 
and aluminum, and also lime, although this is not an indispensable 
requisite. This is the soil Mexico provides, and it is so deep that it 
is not necessary to plant a crop of corn after the tobacco crop, planters 
instead raising a second or seedling crop of tobacco, which furnishes 
the small and mild leaf used in cigarette making. The extent of the 
tobacco region is immense, probably one hundred times that of the 
same region in Cuba. 

As a material for "fillers" Mexican tobacco is unexcelled. Practi- 
cally no wrapper tobacco is grown in Mexico. The finest Mexican 
cigars go to Habana, where they sell at $1.67 per pound. All of the 
Central American and some of the South American countries buy 
these cigars, paying an average of $1.05 a pound. 

The total production of tobacco during 1897, as shown by official 
statistics, was 8,956,013 kilograms, valued at $2,985,920, silver. The 
same official source gives the following figures for the production by 
the leading States in 1897: 



states. 


KUos. 


Value 

(Mexican 

silver). 






3,193,518 

1,786,066 

982,979 

725,796 

556,260 


SI, 828, 642 




462, 762 




94, 614 


Tepic 


102, 612 




78, 778 







The States of Chiapas, Sinaloa, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Puebla, Gue- 
rrero, and Yucatan produced each over 100,000 kilos, while the remain- 
ing States produced less than that amount, with the exception of 
Morelos, which is not listed. 

Notwithstanding the fact that Mexico can grow the finest tobacco in 
the world, her imports of tobacco from the United States in 1898-99 
amounted to 1,852,700 pounds, valued at $143,786, 

Cotton has been cultivated in Mexico from time immemorial. Prior 
to the advent of the Aztecs in the valley of Mexico their predecessors 
knew and practiced the art of cotton spinning. It is related that the 
second monarch of the Aztec dynasty took to wife Miahuxochitl, 
daughter of the lord of Cuernavaca, not alone to form a strong alliance, 
but also to provide raiment for his naked followers. It is recounted 
that the Aztec women had 200 methods of manufacturing cotton. 



MEXICO. 157 

Although Mexico is so thoroughly adapted by soil and climate to 
the production of this fiber, and although she has an acreage sufficient 
to produce it in quantities greater than the United States, she is 
not only not an exporting nation, but actually imports annually about 
12,000,000 worth of the staple to supply the demand of her factories. 
In 1897-98 she imported 21,216,287 pounds from the United States, 
and in 1898-99, 18,064,891 pounds. It has been said that with direct 
railroad communication from the Pacific coast to the interior the 
Yaqui River region in Sonora alone would suppl}?^ that demand, and 
more. 

Cotton is produced on the seaward slopes of both cordilleras, and 
also in the interior of the country. The great cotton belt is the Laguna 
district, in the State of Coahuila, which has a length of about 40 miles, 
is rather narrow, and follows the Nazas River, being almost entirely 
under cultivation. It is distant about 700 miles from the City of 
Mexico, and is in railroad communication therewith. Under fair con- 
ditions the annual crop will yield $10,000,000 in value. 

Theprincipal cotton-producing districts, other than that named above, 
are: On the Gulf side, the cantons of Cosamaloapam, Tuxtla, Tuxpam, 
Tautoyuca, and Veracruz, in the State of Veracruz.^ On the Pacific 
slope, from Sonora to Chiapas. In Sonora, the valleys of the Yaqui 
and the Mayo; in Sinaloa, the valley of the Fuerte; in Tepic, the 
valleys of Tepic and Santiago, the fertility of which is astonishing, and 
in Jalisco, Michoacan, Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas the production 
is great, and could, at a small cost, be made enormous. In the central 
part. Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, and Nuevo Leon are the princi- 
pal producers. 

The methods of cultivation employed are still rather primitive, the 
plow until very recently being little used, and nature being left to 
exercise her agencies unaided. With the intelligent use of improved 
machinery and a knowledge of advanced methods of cultivation Mexico 
need never import an ounce of cotton. There are great advantages 
in the cultivation of Mexican cotton, as the plants continue to bear 
profitable crops without the use of fertilizers on the soil or the renewal 
of seed, which is necessary each year in the United States. 

The staple of the Mexican cotton is longer than that of the United 
States, but is not so soft and lustrous. 

The total production of cotton during the year 1897, according to 
Mexican official figures, was 32,915, 394 kilograms, valuedat$12,803,679. 
The production by States was as follows: 



states. 



Kilos. 



Value 

(Mexican 
silver) . 



Coahuila. 
Durango . 
Guerrero . 

Tepic 

Veracruz. 



17, 968, 187 
5, 553, 043 
4, 265, 000 
2, 479, 000 
1, 578, 675 



86, 264, 632 

5, 403, 373 

235, 900 

206, 090 

503, 717 



158 MEXICO. 

Tamaulipas, Hidalgo, Sonora, and Sinaloa, together, produced over 
750,000 kilos, and the other States, excepting Aguascalientes, Cam- 
peche, Guanajuato, Mexico, Morelos, Queretaro, Tabasco, Tlaxcala, 
Yucatan, and Zacatecas, not listed, produced less than 100,000 kilos. 

Cacao {Theobrovia^ in Greek — the food of the gods) is another plant 
indigenous to Mexico. It has been cultivated by the aborigines from 
remote times, and from its bean they made their drink chocolatl 
(chocolate), which was considered to have great sustaining virtues, 
and Cortes, speaking of the general adoption of the beverage by his 
soldiers, in his first letter to Charles V says: "He who has drunk his 
cup of chocolate travels a whole day without taking other food." 

Ever since chocolate came into general use in Europe, in the latter 
part of the seventeenth century, the high-grade cacao has been furnished 
by the States of Tabasco and Chiapas. The Mexican home consump- 
tion is very large, yet the production does not meet the demand, which 
is ever increasing. 

The cacao requires a warm and moist atmosphere, the best lands 
lying between sea level and 1,600 feet above, in localities protected 
from strong air currents. Although there are many districts in 
Mexico affording the necessary conditions of climate and soil, the cul- 
tivation of the cacao is almost entirely in the hands of the Indians, 
who raise it on a small scale and carry their crops to market, where 
they are bought by merchants, who store them away until a sufficient 
quantity is collected to ship to the large consuming centers. The 
plant begins bearing three or four years after planting, and usually 
gives three crops a year, although in some parts of Chiapas four crops 
have been garnered in a twelvemonth. 

A Mexican authority thus estimates the cost of establishing and 
maintaining a cacao plantation for a period of eight years : 

Cost of 100 acres of land $500 

Clearing same for cacao, staking, planting shade trees, cacao, and corn be- 
tween the rows of the cacao plants, care of corn, and expense of harvesting. . 1, 340 

Value of corn crop 1, 200 

Second year: 

Cost of maintaining plantation and of planting, cultivating, and harvest- 
ing corn crop 1, 130 

Value of corn crop 1, 000 

Third year: 

Cost of maintaining plantation, raising last crop of corn, and gathering 

first crop of cacao 1, 600 

Value of corn and cacao 1 , 600 

Fourth year: 

Cost of maintaining plantation 1,444 

300 cargas ^ of cacao 7, 500 

Fifth year, profits 6, 000 

Sixth year, profits 8, 300 

Seventh year, profits 10, 490 

Eighth year, profits 21,000 

^ The carga here mentioned is equivalent to about 60 pounds. 



MEXICO. 159 

The plants reach their maximum production the ninth or tenth year, 
and after the twenty-third year their yield diminishes. The trees are 
planted about 400 to the acre, and an authority places the average 
yield of 1,000 trees at 600 pounds. The cacao industry has proven a 
considerable source of wealth to the State of Tabasco, and it is strange 
that investors have not recognized its profitableness. 

It is asserted by good authority that land well adapted to the raising 
of cacao plants can be purchased for about $8 an acre, Mexican money, 
in sections of from 100 to 500 acres. 

As the bean of the plant is extensively used in the manufacture of 
chocolate, and it is utilized in the making of salves for medical use, 
such as cacao butter, its cultivation offers an inviting field for profitable 
specidation. 

In the year 1897, according to Mexican official statistics, the States 
producing cacao in greater quantities were: 



Kilos. 



Value 
(Mexican 
silver). 



Tabasco 

Chihuahua. 
Veracruz .. 



418, 032 
144, 491 
10, 000 



32,256 
16, 100 



Oaxaca, Michoacan, Guerrero, and Colima produced less than 10,000 
kilos each. 

The other States are not listed. The total production of the Repub- 
lic is estimated at 590,669 kilos, with a valuation of $565,808 in silver, 
m 1897. 

The consumption of cacao in Mexico is so general that in 1896-97 
it was imported to the value of |106,126, and in 1897-98 to the value 
of $182,612. 

The rubber tree grows wild in many parts of Mexico; it abounds in 
"the warm latitudes of the States of Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Tabasco, 
Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Colima, Michoacan, and the Territory of 
Tepic. Except in isolated cases, the cultivation of the tree has not 
been seriously undertaken. The natives, not appreciating the value 
of so important an element in the arboreal vegetation of the country, 
have been accustomed for many years to extract the milk from the 
tree, boil it, and take the rubber made into balls to the market with- 
out any further preparation or treatment. The natives also chopped 
down and destroyed great numbers of these trees. 

In the Tehuantepec region there are said to be 1,200 square miles 
of territory susceptible of growing the rubber tree. There it is valu- 
able not only because of its product but also for the good results it 
gives in furnishing shade to coffee and cacao trees. The tree begins 
to yield when 6 or 7 years old, but it is not considered advisable to 
tap until it is 9 or 10 years of age. If the tapping is properly done 



160 MEXICO. 

(once a year, in October and November, for instance) it will produce 
for twenty-five years. It produces 1 pound of gum when 10 years 
old and 2^ to 3 pounds when 15 years of age. 

The cost of planting and care for the first year is from 4i to 5 cents, 
and li to 1^ cents for cultivation in the subsequent years. On the 
isthmus the gum sells for 10 to 60 cents, gold, per pound, on the 
plantations. 

Romero states^ that the milk yield of each tree six years after 
planting is estimated at 6 pounds, which, reduced to rubber, loses 
about 55 per cent, and he calculates that a plantation of 100,000 trees 
would produce a net profit at the end of six years, at the prices then 
prevailing (1871), of $110,880. 

The best climate for the culture of the rubber tree is the hottest, and 
the best land the dampest and the nearest to the seashore or on the low- 
lying banks of rivers. The tree requires but little labor for its cultiva- 
tion. An economical method of growing it is to plant the trees as shade 
for coffee and cacao plantations, rubber itself not requiring the shade, but, 
on the contrary, experience in Mexico has demonstrated that trees grow- 
ing in the sun are healthier and better than when protected from its influ- 
ence. The prevailing opinion among the agriculturists of Mexico seems 
to be that 2 to 2i meters from tree to tree on every side is the proper 
spacing in planting rubber trees. The hardiness of the plant greatly 
simplifies its culture, thus rendering it proportionately cheap. In the 
low, hot, damp lands most favorable to its growth the fertility of 
the soil is so great that the necessary labor may be said to consist 
solely in weeding the plantations, and as the rubber plant possesses a 
vitality superior to that of weeds or of any other kind of vegetation, 
in proportion as the trees grow larger the necessity for weeding 
becomes less imperative. Another point in determining the success of 
a plantation is the method employed in tapping the trees. This oper- 
ation must be performed very carefully, so as not to injure the woody 
structure beyond the bark, nor must the bark be separated in two 
portions, thus isolating the upper and lower sections of the tree and 
preventing the ascent of the sap. For the fiscal years 1887-88 and 
1888-89 the exports of rubber were valued at $169,385 and $124,547, 
respectively. From that time to 1894 they gradually fell off', and in 
1896-97 there were exported 64,843 kilograms, valued at $63,126. The 
total production during the year 1897, according to official figures, 
amounted to 134,301 kilograms, valued at $194,881. Tabasco was the 
State that produced the most rubber, being quoted, in the Mexican 
statistics, at 51,936 kilograms, valued at $121, 516. Next follow Chiapas 
with 49,614 kilograms, worth $47,686; Veracruz, 14,300 kilograms, 
with a valuation of $11,455, and Tepic 11,170 kilograms, at $7,571. 
Puebla and Campeche produced together a little over 7,250 kilograms. 

1 Coffee and India Rubber Culture in Mexico. New York, 1898, p. 382. / 



MEXICO. 161 

One of the principal productions of Mexico is the gum known as 
chicle, which exudes from the chico-zapote tree, found growing wild 
along the Coatzacoalcos, Corte, Coachapa, and Uspanapa rivers. The 
product of this tree is usually gathered by the Indians in the forests 
along these rivers, and no important attempt has been made toward 
growing the tree as an industry, although the gum forms a very large 
proportion of the exports of the country, amounting in 1896-97 to 
2,122,337 kilograms, valued at $1,529,017. The cultivation is inexpen- 
sive, being not greater than li cents per tree annually, and it would 
seem that where one chewing-gum factory in the United States had 
an output in the year 1896 of 1,000,000,000 pieces of chewing gum, 
all made from the Mexican chicle^ the industry would be a remunera- 
tive one. The trees should be planted not more than 100 to the acre, 
at a cost of 5i cents each. They mature after reaching the age of 8 
or 10 years, when they are from 12 to 15 inches in diameter and in a 
condition to tap. Each tree yields from 5 to 6 pounds of the merchant- 
able gum, at a cost of 8 to 10 cents per pound to extract it, and sells 
for an average of 50 cents per pound at Minatitlan and Coatzacoalcos, 
on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 

In 1898-99 the United States imported from Mexico chicle gum to 
the amount of 2,445,061 pounds, valued at $363,051 gold. 

The total production of the various gums and resins for the year 
1897 was as follows: Chicle gum, 753,284 kilograms, valued at $480,775; 
"Mesquite" gum, 43,507 kilograms, worth $14,388, and "copal" resin, 
9,244 kilograms with a valuation of $878. 

As far back as the time of the Aztecs the vanilla bean was used to 
spice the chocolate. The Spaniards, quick to see the value of vanilla 
as an article of export, began the cultivation of the aromatic pod. 
For a long time the former province of Veracruz supplied the whole 
world with vanilla until the Bourbon Islands and Java waged compe- 
tition against it. 

France is the leading market for this proiduct; Germany, England, 
and the United States follow in the order named. Mexico furnishes 
over two-thirds of the vanilla beans imported by the United States — 
140,000 pounds a year, worth $640,000. 

The vanilla of Mexico is the superior of all other varieties as to 
aroma, and the pod yields a much larger quantity of essential oils. In 
the markets of the United States it commands two or three times as 
high a price as that of other countries. 

Usually the plant begins to yield thirty-nine months after planting. 
It thrives best in the damp, not muddy or swampy, lands of the torrid 
zone, shade being a necessity, and yields its product during 10 to 12 
years. The average yield is from 10 to 20 pods to the vine, artificial 
fertilization of the flower producing much more. The cultivation of 
vanilla has many advantages, among others that corn and similar 
65lA 11 



162 MEXICO. 

products may be cultivated in conjunction with it, and on coffee plan- 
tations as a secondary product. 

In Mexico the pods are sold by the thousand. The cost for clearing 
and planting an acre of ground is estimated at $39, and the cultiva- 
tion, including the artificial poUenizing of the flower, amounts to 
about $9 a year for each acre. The expense of gathering, curing, and 
preparing the pods for market is about $26.50 per thousand. Of 
recent years green vanilla has been selling at Papautla, a canton of 
the State of Veracruz, where the best quality grows, at prices ranging 
from $80 upward a thousand pods. In 1896 it sold for $146 a 
thousand. 

Vanilla grows in the States of Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, 
Michoacan, and Jalisco, also on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where 
there are two species growing in a wild state. 

According to Mexican official statistics, the production of the vanilla 
bean during the fiscal year 1896-97 was estimated at 23,555 kilograms, 
valued at $192,214, the State of Veracruz alone producing 21,855 
kilograms, worth $191,010. 

The cultivation of sugar cane was among the agricultural improve- 
ments introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards. It appears that 
Cortes had two plantations in Izcalpam, and these were followed by 
others until in 1553 sugar was exported from Mexico to Spain and 
Peru. The cultivation of the cane was then limited to the " Inten- 
dencias" of Guanjuato, Guadalajara, Puebla, Mexico, and Veracruz. 
Toward the end of the eighteenth century the industry received a 
great impetus on account of the poor crops of Santo Domingo and 
other cane-producing countries. The increase in the development of 
the industry, however, was not so great as had been anticipated. 

All the coasts of the Republic, the entire tiefrra caliente or hot lands, 
and a great part of the temperate region are adapted to the cultiva- 
tion of sugar cane, yet this great source of wealth may be said to be 
just emerging from the infantile stage, when the vast domain suscepti- 
ble of producing the toothsome cane is considered. 

The largest plantations in the country are, strangely enough, situated 
in the interior, where the yield of the soil is less than on the coasts, 
and where the question of transportation cuts a considerable figure, 
wherefore the production is limited to the home consumption, while 
the great future of the sugar industry lies in exportation. A want 
of capital, and other causes, has had its effect upon the coast plan- 
tations. 

The cane, especially on the Gulf slope, grows to an enormous size, 
and does not need regrowing for ten years at least. No ploughing or 
irrigating is needed. Clearing, planting, and cultivation does not cost 
$15 per acre, and the cane is ready to cut in ten months after plant- 
ing. The plant produces from 30 to 35 tons of cane per acre, yield- 



MEXICO. 



163 



ing 20 to 25 tons of juice, containing from 15 to 16 per cent of crys- 
tallizable sugar, and a plantation well cared for will yield for thirty 
years. The process now in vogue only extracts about 6 per cent of 
this sugar; it is asserted that by the use of improved machinery an 
acre could be made to yield 3 tons of refined sugar. At Suchilapam 
and adjacent places four canes have yielded a gallon of juice. 

It is claimed^ that in the States of Morelos, Puebla, Michoacan, 
Jalisco, and Colima the yield of cane to the acre may be reasonably 
counted upon at 45 tons, while in Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas as 
much as 60 tons are obtained, the general average in the northern 
part of Veracruz, Tamaulipas, and Nuevo Leon being 40 tons. Prices 
paid to the cane grower for the purchase of this cane by the factories 
vary from $3.60 to $6 Mexican currency per ton of 1,000 kilograms, or 
2,240 pounds. The price of white sugar in loaves is 8 cents per pound; 
molasses averages $25 a ton, and the aguardiente^ or spirits, from $8 
to $14 per barrel. The same authority quotes an estimate, which is 
claimed to be very conservative, of the results that can be obtained in 
a 500-acre plantation, the net product of which is estimated at $188,425 
per annum, while the approximate cost of machinery, buildings, etc., 
for a sugar factory to take off the crop in one hundred days, is given 
at from $100,000 to $300,000 Mexican currency. 

Mexican official figures for 1897 give the following amounts relative 
to the production of cane and its by-products in the Republic for the 
year 1896-97: 



Products. 



Kilograms. 



Value 

(Mexican 

silver). 



Sugar 

" Panocha " (brown sugar) 

Molasses 

Rum hectoliters. . 



65, 803, 119 

61,856,435 

44,847,421 

812, 690 



$9, 176, 567 
5,031,993 
1, 481, 469 
3, 930, 704 



The total production of sugar cane was estimated at 1,261,431 tons, 
at $17,516,833. 

With the exception of the States of Lower California, Chihuahua, 
Coahuila, Durango, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, and Sonora, and the Federal 
District, which do not appear in the statistics at hand, all the States 
produced sugar, the principal being: Morelos, 38,247,812 kilograms, 
valued at $4,637,590; Michoacan, 7,374,103 kilograms, $1,230,826; 
Jalisco, 5,266,214 kilograms, $903,199; Oaxaca, 3,610,339 kilograms, 
$331,902; Puebla, over 2,500,000 kilograms; and Veracruz and Yucatan 
over 1,500,000 kilograms each. None of the other States in the list 
reached the latter figures. 

All of the States produced brown sugar {panocha), Nueva Leon being 
listed with 15,055,078 kilograms, valued at $1,152,280. Morelos pro- 



^The Hacendado Mexicano's Sugar Report, 1899-1900, Mexico City, p. 3. 



164 MEXICO. 

duced 25,106,350 kilograms of molasses, valued at $1,113,560; Chiapas, 
5,626,613 kilograms; and Oaxaca, over 5,000,000. The other States are 
credited with proportionate amomits, with the exception of Guana- 
juato, Durango, and the Federal District, which are not listed. 

The production of rum is estimated, as before stated, at 812,690 
hectoliters, Puebla being at the head with 262,758 hectoliters, valued 
at $5,185,675, followed by Chiapas with 162,299 hectoliters, with a 
valuation of $3,133,382. The other States produced less than 100,000 
hectoliters each, with the exception of Lower California, Chihuahua, 
Sonora, and the Federal District, which are not listed. 

Mexico is undoubtedly the country far excellence for the production 
of fiber plants. They grow there in abundance and in a wild state. 
Chief among them is the heniquen {Agave rigida)^ also called sisal grass 
or hemp, the natural home of which is the peninsula of Yucatan. It 
belongs to the Maguey {Agave) family and was called metl by the Aztecs 
who from time immemorial used it as an article of food, the leaves 
being utilized for roofing, the fiber for weaving, and the juice for the 
preparation of a drink called octli^ the j^ulqice of to-day. 

There are several species of the plant, known by Maya names, and 
which require little or no cultivation and but small outlay. For several 
years this article has constituted the main export of Yucatan, where 
in 1897 there were produced 17,012,131 kilograms of the fiber, valued 
at $6,932,327 Mexican silver. During the fiscal year 1897-98 there 
were exported through the port of Progreso, Yucatan, 75,183,816 
kilograms of the raw material, destined for the United States and 
Europe. 

The total production of this fiber in 1896-97, according to Mexican 
ofiicial figures, amounted to 50,226,056 kilograms, valued at $7,391,517 
silver, divided as follows: 



Kilograms. 



Value. 



Yucatdn .. 
Campeche 
Oaxaca ... 
Sinaloa ... 
Chiapas . . . 



47, 042, 134 

3, 083, 300 

40, 000 

30, 000 

30, 622 



S, 923, 327 

456, 222 

800 

4,200 



Heniquen occupies the second place in the exports of Mexico. In 
the fiscal year 1897-98 the exports of this fiber to the United States 
amounted to 68,132 tons, valued at $5,101,228 gold, and in 1898-99, 
69,596 tons, with a valuation of $8,902,213 gold. According to Mexican 
official figures, the total exports of the raw and manufactured article 
in 1896-97 were 71,085,535 kilograms, with a valuation of $7,131,852 
silver for the raw material, and 6,162 kilograms of its manufactures, 
valued at $1,951 silver. 

Among other fiber plants in the country the ixtle or tnaguey ina/nso 



MEXICO. 165 

{Agave ixtle) is found. In 1896-97, according to Mexican official statis- 
tics, the production of this plant amounted to 12,924,520 kilograms, 
valued at $2,973,775, Chiapas ranking first among the States of the 
R-epublic with 6,667,043 kilograms, valued at $2,430,338 silver. The 
exports for the same year are officially estimated as follows: Raw 
material, 9,143,009 kilograms, valued at $807,162, and 22,468 kilo- 
grams in a manufactured state, with a valuation of $6,812 silver. 
The United States imported during the fiscal year 1898-99, ixtle or 
Tampico fiber, as it is also called, to the amount of 4,419 tons, valued 
at $274,811 gold. Paper is one of the derivative products of ixtle, for 
the manufacture of which it produces an excellent pulp. 

There are many other fiber plants in the country, such as cotton, 
already mentioned; the angu {Hibiscus esculentus)^ which also serves as 
food; hemp {Canahis indicd)^ both textile and medicinal; the ceibon or 
cotton-silk tree {Bomhax pentmidria)\ the hunari {Sida romhoidea)^ 
also medicinal; several plants of the Agave family; the jpita or wild 
pineapple {Furcrea gigcmtea)\ the pitahaya {Oereus variabilis); the 
ramie {Boehmeria hivea), of which there are two varieties; and several 
others, such as the plantain {Musa textilis)^ the cocoanut tree {Cocus 
nucifera)^ and the Lechuguilla {Agave heterocanta). 

The maguey^ from which the national drink, pulqxLe^ is extracted, is 
indigenous to Mexico, but it is found growing in the United States, 
although not in any great abundance. There are 125 species of this 
plant peculiar to Mexico. The maguey grows most abundantly on the 
great plains, the plateaus, at an elevation of more than 7,000 feet 
above the sea. On the vast plains of Apam, about 100 miles from the 
capital, the plants are to be seen as far as the eye can reach, laid out 
in straight rows having an interval of 3 yards between them. It is 
said that there are 33 species of the plant on the plateaus. As far 
back as 1519 the native Mexicans cultiv^ated the maguey, of which great 
variety of products were obtained from the roots, leaves, and juice. 
Paper was made from the pulp of the leaves; twine and thread from 
their fibers, and needles from the sharp tips of their leaves. These 
leaves also serve as thatching for the houses of the poor. The rare 
and valuable Mexican manuscripts in ancient times were made of 
pulp from the maguey^ which resembles the papyrus. It is claimed 
that at least forty different articles are manufactured from the plant. 
Some of the maguey plantations produce a revenue of $10,000 tP 
$12,000 per annum. 

Pulque is the fermented juice of this plant, and the consumption of 
this beverage in the City of Mexico and outlying towns-in the Federal 
District is something enormous. In the city alone during the second 
half of the fiscal year 1897-98 there were 909 shops devoted exclu- 
sively to its sale. A train on the Mexican Railway leaves the plains 
of Apam every day laden with nothing but j?^^^'^^^ in barrels and skins, 



166 MEXICO. 

deriving a large revenue from the shipments. In the year 1896-97 
the Mexican Interoceanic Railway carried 47,711 tons of lyulque^ and 
during the first half of 1897 the Mexican Railway carried 13,750 tons, 
earning $115,635 therefor. 

According to Mexican official statistics, the alcoholic products 
derived from magxtey in 1897 were as follows: Pulque rum, 13,967 
hectoliters, valued at $123,787; mescal or tequila, 399,281 hectoliters, 
$4,135,377; pulque, 2,639,028 hectoliters, $4,939,673; and tlachique, 
2,422,171 hectoliters, $2,940,701. The States producing the largest 
quantity of pulque were: Mexico, 1,059,338 hectoliters, valued at 
$1,784,249; Hidalgo, 811,089 hectoliters, $1,934,880; and Tlaxcala, 
456,200 hectoliters, $483,680. 

Mescal or tequila is a strong alcoholic beverage, colorless or of a 
very light amber tint. It is distilled from the root of the maguey 
"mescal or tequila {Agave am.ericana Lam.), and has an odor and taste 
not unlike Scotch whisky. Mexicans claim that it has good stomachic 
qualities, but it is a great intoxicant. The best quality of the article 
comes from the district of Tequila in the State of Jalisco, from which 
\K derives its name. In 1897 this State produced 167,317 hectoliters 
of pulque, valued at $1,604,378, and Coahuila's output of the same 
article is given as 96,936 hectoliters, with a valuation of $117,181. 

Tlachique is the unf ermented juice of the maguey and is consumed in 
large quantities. In 1897 the Mexican official figures for the pro- 
duction of this article credit the State of Mexico with 2,068,186 hecto- 
liters, valued at $1,854,385, and Hidalgo with 116,946 hectoliters, 
worth $168,739, silver. 

The Mexican broom corn is named Zacaton, but it is not cultivated, 
even though it figures quite largely in the list of exports. It not only 
is not cultivated, but in some localities efforts are made to uproot it 
as an injurious plant, since it will not allow the growing of any other 
plant alongside of it. 

The root is used in Europe and the United States for the manufac- 
ture of brooms, brushes, etc. The plant grows wild on the high table 
lands and could be cultivated at a very small expense. The selling 
price on the ground varies between $6 and $8 per hundred pounds. In 
the year 1896-97 there were exported 4,051,136 kilograms of the root, 
valued at $1,187,700, and in 1897-98, 4,560,268 kilograms, at $1,196,293, 
silver. 

Mexico produces several plants yielding oils, both industrial and 
esculent; but up to the present no great industry has been founded in 
the country based upon the presence of many varieties of trees and 
plants giving oil-bearing products and the adaptability of much of the 
soil to the cultivation of these and other species. 

Among this kind of plants may be mentioned the jpinon {Jatropha 
curcas)^ which yields 16 per cent of an emeto-cathartic oil of great 
strength. 



MEXICO. 167 

The Pahna Christie or castor bean {JRiccvnus communis), yields 40 per 
cent of a medicinal oil. As this contains a large proportion of stearin 
it can be used in the manufacture of candles. This plant grows spon- 
taneously and in great profusion in the hot and low temperate lands. 
One acre will produce about 1,600 pounds of oil. The ajonjoli {Sesa- 
mun indicum), or sesame, gives 33 per cent of a very soft, sweet, and 
agreeable oil. 

The nut of the hicaco ( Chrysohalanus icaco) also produces the same 
percentage of an esculent oil having the same properties as the almond 
oil. 

The peanut {Arachis hypogcea) gives the same amount. This and the 
last above-named oil are much prized in Marseilles. 

Among the oleaginous plants may be mentioned the following: 
Cacao {Theohroma Cacao), Cocoanut {Cocos nucifera and Alfonsia 
Mads oleiferd), the Chicalote {Argenione mexicana and A. grandi- 
flora), the Cliia {Salvia poly stachia)^ the linseed, and others. 

The Anuario Estadistico for 1897 estimates as follows the produc- 
tion of several oleaginous plants: Sesamun, 651,831 hectoliters, val- 
ued at $107,086; peanut, 140,357 hectoliters, $341,198; Chia, 38,931 
hectoliters, $4,271; castor bean or Palma Christi, 14,603 hectoliters, 
$34,418. Michoacan produced 418,386 hectoliters of sesamun, and 
Veracruz 191,583, valued at $33,420 and $42,697, respectively. Guana- 
juato produced 25,202, and Zacatecas 24,610 hectoliters, the respective 
valuations being $70,924 and $72,525. Veracruz produced 34,000 
hectoliters of Chia, worth $3,400, and Puebla 4,830 hectoliters, valued 
at $386. Of Palma Christi, Yucatan is credited with 5,105 hectoliters, 
at $9,934, and Oaxaca, 3,592 hectoliters, worth $4,117. Jalisco's lin- 
seed crop amounted to 63,638 hectoliters, worth $254,555, and that of 
Puebla to 17,020 hectoliters, valued at $1,021. 

The experiment of introducing the vine, olive trees, and the silk- 
worm industry into Mexico dates back as fa>r as the conquest. Cortes 
himself had plantations of mulberry trees at Yautepec and Tetecla. 
The silk-worm industry made fair progress at first, but the com- 
petition of Manila and Spain caused its gradual neglect. In 1790 an 
effort was made to revive it, but without success. 

"The cultivation of olives and the vine," says Bancroft^ "labored 
under severe restrictions. Admirably adapted as soil and climate 
were for both purposes, the few plantations of olives were merely 
allowed to exist because they belonged to pious or charitable estab- 
lishments, while as to the vine, the viceroys were repeatedly 
instructed not to permit the planting of new cuttings, nor even the 
replacing of vines in decay (1595). Wine could only be made on con- 
dition of paying taxes to the Crown, and it was not until 1796 that a 
more liberal policy in this respect was adopted." 

1 History of Mexico, Vol. Ill, p. 613. 



168 MEXICO. 

At the beginning of this chapter reference was made to the efforts 
of the Department of Promotion to encourage the culture ot these 
plants. According to the report made by Senor Don Francisco Mallen 
to the Department of Promotion on the encouragement given to the 
propagation of vines and fruit trees in the country, Mexico, in 1892, 
imported 1,053,460 plants, as follows: Vine cuttings, simple, 1,030,000; 
with roots, 11,000; olive cuttings, 9,250, and fruit trees of different 
A^arieties, 3,200. More than half a million of these vine cuttings and 4,000 
olive shoots were planted in Parras and 62,500 cuttings in Viezca, both in 
the State of Coahuila; 50,000 in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, and the rest 
were distributed in the Central Plateau and other regions in the south- 
ern part of the Republic. The first trial plantations were very suc- 
cessful, and the culture of the fine imported qualities has become more 
general, the planters having requested renewals of their original 
orders. The grape thrives best in Parras, which has become the 
center of viticulture in the country. California vines have given bet- 
ter satisfaction in this section than those from Europe. At the time 
of the above-mentioned report (1892), the Rosario plantation or vine- 
yard (the largest in the Republic) had made a request for 25,000 addi- 
tional cuttings, being already supplied with 60,000 vine stocks of the 
European and about 13,000 of the California species, some of the for- 
mer having been grown from those distributed by the Department of 
Promotion, while others had been imported directly from Spain, Ital}^, 
and France. It has been demonstrated that the California species 
thrives better. 

The "Anuario Estadistico" for 1897 only mentions five plantations 
devoted to the cultivation of the vine, four in Coahuila and one in 
Guanajuato, but estimates the total production of grapes during the 
same year at 2,060,436 kilograms, valued at $78,840 (silver), including 
16 States and 1 Territory among the grape-producing sections of the 
country. First in order of importance comes Coahuila, with 1,361,301 
kilograms, valued at 114,827; followed by Chihuahua, with 291,368 
kilograms, at $17,429; Durango, 127,256 kilograms, at $15,035, and 
Zacatecas, with 108,748 kilograms, at $10,892. The same authority 
estimates 1,242 hectoliters, valued at $46,285 (silver), as the total 
production of grape rum, and 20,952 hectoliters, worth $257,910, 
as the total production of grape wine during the year 1896-97, 
Coahuila being credited with 900 hectoliters of the former and 6,000 
hectoliters of the latter, valued at $32,400 and $120,000, respectively. 
Durango's production was estimated at 250 hectoliters of grape rum 
and 3,315 of grape wine, for $9,900 and $27,514, respectively. Lower 
California produced 7,516 hectoliters of wine, valued at $30,712, and 
Jalisco is quoted as equaling Coahuila in the wine output. 

It can not be said that Mexico has as yet developed into a wine- 
making country, but serious efforts in this direction have been made 



MEXICO. 169 

since 1883. The wines now made, as a rule, are too light and acidulous. 
Table grapes are raised in considerable quantity, however, and their 
quality is becoming a dangerous rival to the California varieties for 
local consumption. 

The land best adapted to viticulture is in the vicinity of the city of 
Parras, State of Coahuila. Since 1890 the industry of the manufacture 
of wines has been making great strides. Several varieties of vines have 
been imported from abroad, and at the two largest wineries cellars 
Have been constructed and all the latest improvements for vinous fer- 
mentation introduced, being under the management and direction of 
foreign experts in the art. 

In 1897 there were about 4,000 acres planted in vines in the locality 
named, most of the grapes being of the variety known in California as 
the "Mission" grape, it having been introduced there by the mission- 
ary fathers from Spain. In the year noted wine sold on the ground 
at $1.20 per gallon Mexican money. 

As regards olive and mulberry trees, the only official data available 
show that in 1893 there were imported 72,000 olive cuttings, of 
which 4,000 were planted in Parras. It is anticipated that the 
encouragement given this industry by the Department of Promotion 
will greatly advance its progress. 

When the late Gen, Carlos Pacheco was Secretary of Promotion he 
gave new life to the cultivation of the vine and the mulberry tree. 
The latter, which is so necessary to the silkworm industry, is now 
receiving attention in many places, principally in the States of 
Puebla, Jalisco, Michoacan, and Guanajuato. A Mexican planted, in 
1896, 152,000 mulberry trees in the State of Guanajuato, pursuant to 
a contract made with the State legislature, in which contract he binds 
himself to lay out 2,000,000 trees within two years. 

Mexico possesses exceptional conditions for the production and 
trade in fruit owing to her situation and the fertility of her soil. 
The United States, her principal market, lies at her very doors, and 
communication by water and land is both rapid and moderate in 
charges. 

The most favored Mexican fruits in the United States are the 
orange, lemon, lime, pineapple, and banana. But the day will come 
when other lucious tropical f uits will be appreciated and become a 
large element of the American imports. Fruits such as the mango 
{Mangifera indica)^ custard apple {Anacardium occidentaUs)^ cheri- 
molia {Anona cherimolia)^ mamey {Manvmea americana)^ zapota {Ach- 
ras zapote), the alligator pear {Per sea gratissima)^ and others which are 
distinctively tropical, when properly appreciated, will be consumed 
largely in American markets. 

The banana and the orange grow spontaneously in great abundance 
near the Mexican coast. On lands near the sea, at an elevation of 



170 



MEXICO. 



from 1,900 to 2,-100 feet above it, great plantations of banana trees 
can be laid out at a cost of 5 cents per plant, which includes every 
expense up to the time of bearing fruit. At the end of the first year 
the plant produces one bunch, which can be sold in the United States 
at from $2.50 to $3. A thousand banana trees, costing $50, will 
bring $1,000 at least in one year. An acre will produce from 700 to 
800 bunches, at a cost not exceeding 8 cents a bunch, each of which 
can be sold on the ground for 10 cents, yielding a net profit of at least 
$225 per acre. The exportation of this fruit from the West Indies 
and Central America reaches into the millions every year. 

According to the Mexican official statistics the Republic produced, 
in 1896-97, bananas to the amount of 770,499,050 kilograms, valued at 
$458,922. Oaxaca was the largest producer, being listed with 740,- 
458,596 kilograms, valued at$45,000, Veracruz producing over 9,000,- 
000 kilograms, at $68,000; San Luis Potosi, over 5,000,000 kilograms 
at $9,000; Jalisco over 3,000,000 kilograms, and Michoacan and Puebla, 
over 2,000,000 kilograms each. 

Mexico affords much better facilities for the cultivation of the 
aurantiaceous fruits than the southern part of Europe, which suffers 
the disadvantage of lack of rains in the summer, rendering it neces- 
sary to irrigate the trees for five months in the year, thereb}^ incur- 
ring an increased expense. In Mexico the rains begin in May or June, 
thus rendering irrigation wholly unnecessary. 

The orange is the leading member of the aurantiaceous family under 
the genus citrus. Three kinds grow in Mexico — the sweet, the sour, 
and the Chinese or mandarin, and another variety called " lima-orange," 
which is a variety of the sweet orange. 

Mexican official statistics for 1897 give the following figures for the 
production of oranges in 1896-97: 



state. 


Kilograms. 


Value 

(Mexican 

silver). 


Oaxaca 


730,585,000 

103, 608, 730 

9,000,000 

8, 000, 000 

4,000,000 


$647, 000 

2, 701, 763 

Not given. 

Not given. 

Not given. 


Mexico 


San Luis Potosi 


Veracruz 


Jalisco 





The California and Florida stock have recently been imported into 
the country and grafted and budded with the Mexican trees. Many 
thousand acres of land are being opened up to this cultivation in the 
Northern States. Many are the uses to which this tree can be put, as 
witness the following quotation from a report of the United States 
consulate-general to Mexico:^ 

"The orange leaves are the tea of the Indians and of the poor, and 

^United States Consular Reports, "Orange Cultivation in Mexico," Vol. LIII, 
pp. 209-222, 1897. 



MEXICO. 171 

in large cities, where they are peddled in the streets and sold in the 
markets in small bunches for 1 cent apiece, are consumed in large 
quantities. The};^ are considered the best remedy for insomnia and 
restlessness, and are also highly commended as a night drink for chil- 
dren. A line wine is manufactured from the refuse oranges, purchased 
at 20 to 30 cents a hundred, in Cuautla, Morelos, and Guadalajara, which 
retails at 50 cents a bottle. 

"There are other valuable products which could be obtained, such 
as the distilled water of the blossoms, used for toilet purposes, worth 
$4.50 a gallon; citric acid from the pulp of the sour oranges, worth $1 
a pound; a pomade, much used as a cosmetic, worth $2.50 a pound; oil 
from the leaves and rind, which constitutes the main odorous ingredi- 
ents of cologne waters and elixirs, worth $3.50 to $5 a pound, and the 
essential oils from the blossoms, leaves, and unripe fruit, known as 
NeToli petale^ JVeroli higarade^ and essence de petit grain^ high odors 
used by the perfumers, generally worth from $5 to $6 an ounce. The 
second oil mentioned could be manufactured at a small expense, the 
flowers costing not more than 12i cents a pound, out of the numerous 
wild groves of sour oranges existing in the greater part of the tropical 
belt of Mexico." 

The orange tree can be cultivated in Mexico on lands at an altitude 
from 100 to 2,500 feet above sea level. Mexican growers usually 
propagate the orange from the seed, although it can be reproduced 
more advantageously by budding, grafting, layering, inarching, and 
from cuttings. In the latter case the fruit appears in from four to 
five years, and in the former in from seven to eight years. The flower 
in the warmer climates appears in the latter part of October, and the 
season lasts throughout the whole orange territory until May. During 
the months mentioned the blossoms can be collected by placing mats on 
the ground and gentl}^ shaking the trees. Not less than from 10 to 15 
pounds of fresh flowers can be obtained from a full-grown tree, and 
some trees produce as high as from 25 to 30 pounds. ^ A good business 
can be done by properly drying the blossoms, which reduces their weight 
to half, and druggists and dealers pay from T5 cents to $1 per pound 
for these. The fresh blossom brings from 25 to 37i cents per pound. 

The yield of the orange trees in Mexico varies considerably, soil, 
climate, proper irrigation, where needed, pruning, and cultivation 
being important factors in determining the extent of the crops. In 
Atlixco, Yautepec, and Tacambaro the trees average 860 oranges each; 
but in Atotonilco, Montemorelos, and Hermosillo the average yield is 
from 1,700 to 2,200 oranges per year, producing one crop a year. 
With the advantages of climate and soil, the Mexican orange tree 
should yield from 5,000 to 8,000 oranges. 

^Senor Romero (op. cit, p. 59) says the production of flowers per tree is from 22 
to 55 pomids in the case of sweet oranges, and from 60 to 100 pounds per tree from 
the bitter variety. 



172 MEXICO. 

Good orange lands can be procured in Lower California, Chihuahua, 
Coahuila, Sinaloa, and Durango for from $5 to $25, Mexican currency, 
per acre; in Sonora, Nuevo Leon, Puebla, and San Luis Potosi, from 
$25 to $50 per acre; in Michoacan, from $5 to $50 an acre; in Morelos, 
Jalisco, and Veracruz, from $100 to $250 an acre; in Guerrero, Mexico, 
Tepic, Tamaulipas, Oaxaca, the Isthmus, and Chiapas, from $40 to $60 an 
acre. These prices_are for small tracts running from 100 to 500 acres; 
larger tracts can be obtained much cheaper. 

The United States j^early consumes about 70,000 carloads or 
21,000,000 boxes of oranges; of these, 10,000,000 boxes were formerly 
furnished by Florida and about 3,000,000 by California. The ship- 
ment of oranges from Mexico for the year 1896 was about 700 car- 
loads, and during the season 1896-97 the exportation from the Re- 
public was about 1,050 carloads. Notwithstanding the protective 
duty imposed by the United States up to January, 1899, the agent of 
the Department of Promotion of Mexico in Kansas City disposed of 
41,100 boxes of oranges, the gross proceeds of which were $121,898, 
gold. During the fiscal year 1897-98 the United States imported 
Mexican oranges to the value of $134,666, and during the ten months 
ending April 30, 1899, to the value of $137,035. 

The shipments begin about September 1 and end on December 15. 
It ordinarily takes twelve days, moderately fast freight, to send cars 
from shipping points to Chicago or Cincinnati, although some cars 
have made the trip in eight days. The best shipping oranges are from 
Hermosillo, in the State of Sonora; Montemorelos, in the State of 
Nuevo Leon; Rio Verde, La Barca, and Guadalajara, in the State of 
Jalisco. The next grade is from Yautepec, in the State of Oaxaca; 
Michoacan and Atlixco, in the State of Puebla. 

The boxes generally used for shipping are imported from the United 
States. One or two firms in Mexico have attempted to manufacture 
orange boxes, but they have not succeeded in turning out a first-class 
quality. The cost of a box is 31 cents; of the wrapping paper, 15 
cents per box (all of which is imported); cost of packing, 36 cents 
per box; freight and consular costs per box from Kansas City, St. 
Louis, Chicago, or Cincinnati, $2.04; and United States duties, under 
the new tariff act, 15 per cent ad valorem. 

Below is given a table which is taken from the report of the United 
States Consulate-General at Mexico, above referred to, which shows 
the results that can be obtained from a small tract of land of 11 acres, 
10 of which are planted in oranges. 



MEXICO. 



173 



Description. 



Land (from $25 to 1100 an acre) 

Houses, one of $350, another of $50 

Farming implements 

Clearing of land 

Plowing land, lOJ acres, first year 

Garden and seeds, half acre 

Fencing and outhouses 

Nursery (3,516 seedlings) 

Two hundred Riverside navel trees, 80 cents each 

Planting Riverside navel orange trees 

Seven hundred cuttings, and planting in trench 

Transplanting cuttings, second year 

Transplanting 640 seedlings 

Replacing, 10 per cent 

Plowing 120 acres, six years 

Irrigation, seven years 

Weeding and cultivating, seven years, $40 

Planting of corn, six j'ears, 5 acres 

Planting of beans, six years, 5 acres 

Seed beans, $3, and corn, $1, six years, 5 acres each 

Harvesting and shelling beans and corn, six years 

Six hundred and forty buds 

Manuring, six years 

Total 

Production: 

Six years' crops' of corn, 300 cargas, at $3 

Six years' crops of beans, 500 cargas, at $5 

Two years' crops of Riverside navels, 120,000, at $4 per 1,000 
One year's crop from cuttings, 21,000, at $4 

Total 

Less expense and cost of land 

Net profit at end of seventh year 



Cost in 
Mexican 
currency. 

11,100.00 

400. 00 
35.00 
77.00 
21.50 
10.00 
60.00 
12.30 

160. 00 

4.00 

14.00 

14.00 

12.80 

1.30 

120. 00 
98.00 

200. 00 
15.00 
15.00 
24.00 
60.00 
16.00 
30.00 



2, 579. 90 



900.00 

2, 500. 00 

480.00 

840. 00 



4, 720. 00 
2, 579. 90 



2, 140. 10 



From the eighth year on the plantation will average from 576 to 600 
oranges per tree, and on the tenth year 1,000 oranges per tree, at a 
yearly expense of $200 for the 10 acres. Two 2?eones (day laborers) 
can do the general work of the plantation. These can be hired for 
from $1.50 to $2 per week each. From the tenth year forward a 
grower can have with all assurance a net income of $6,000 per year 
out of such size plantations, if no plague or pests attack the trees; and 
in Mexico the tree is not generally subject to any disease nor is it 
affected by any pests. 

The lime, lemon, and sweet lemon are also much cultivated on the 
same lands that produce the orange, and they have become a large 
element in the country's exportations. 

The pineapple is also cultivated to a very great extent. It is easily 
raised and needs hardly any care after planting. It has been said 
that the cost per plant from the seed until ready for market is not 
over 5 cents. It has been estimated that 2i acres planted in pineap- 
ples will easily produce 10,000 plants. The crop of corn which is 
sown among the pineapples will fully meet the expense of the cultiva- 
tion of the fruit; thus the 10,000 pineapples, when planted in this 
way, will cost absolutely nothing. On the ground the fruit sells for 
about 38 cents per dozen, but exported to the United States they 
bring in the neighborhood of $5 a dozen, netting about $1,500 per 
acre under cultivation, and one man can easily cultivate 6 acres. 



174 MEXICO. 

With an outla}^ of about $1,200, gold, a person can, at the end of 
three j^ears, have from 16,000 to 20,000 bearing pineapple plants. 

The Mexican Statistical Annuary for 1897 estimates 282,456,831 
kilograms, valued at $60,157, as the product of the pineapple planta- 
tions in the countr}^, Oaxaca being the largest producer, 281,632,000 
kilograms for $30,000. 

The list of tropical fruits which the prolific soil of Mexico produces 
would take too much space to be incorporated here. 

Mexican official statistics give the annual product of 68 different 
varities of fruits. 

There is no doubt that small fruit culture offers inducements to men 
of small means which no other line of business will offer. The rush 
for silver mines, railroad concessions, and coffee plantations has caused 
this industry to be overlooked; but those acquainted with the condi- 
■ tions prevailing in Mexico all agree that it would be a paying business, 
as one can do much of the work himself, or with the assistance of one 
or two day laborers, and with less expense, more ease, and in one- 
fourth the time get returns on his investment. 

It has been said that of the 4,160 distinct plants which Humboldt 
and Bompland counted as belonging to equinoctial America, the 
great majority, if not all, are to be found in Mexico, besides a multi- 
tude of those characteristic of more elevated geographical regions. 

In an official list of the flora of the hot lands of Mexico, prepared 
by the Government in 1893,^ there are enumerated 233 distinct species 
of medicinal plants, as well as 14 dyewoods. Among the former may 
be mentioned the jalap root {Ipomwa) and sarsaparilla {Smilax sarsa- 
parilla and Smilax arenisca), which grow wild, both of which occu- 
pied a very prominent place in the trade figures of the country some 
years ago, but which have recently assumed a secondary position. 
The total production of these plants in 1896-97, according to Mexican 
official figures, was as follows: Jalap root, 179,932 kilograms, and 
sarsaparilla, 36,387 kilograms, valued at $4,566 and $4,374, respec- 
tively, Hidalgo being the largest producer of jalap root, 154,762 kilo- 
grams, and Veracruz of sarsaparilla, 25,000 kilograms. 

Among the dye-producing plants are the Brazil ( CcEsalpinia crista) 
and Campeche {Heamatoxylon chiaiium) woods, dragons' blood {Ptero- 
ca/rjpus draco) ^ "Grana" {Rubia tinctorea)^ " Zacatlaxcala " ( 6Wcw^« 
americana)^ "moral" {Madura tinctorea)^ and indigo {Indigofera — 
two varieties), some of which are exported in considerable quantities. 
It has been estimated that the value of dyewoods exported by Mexico 
is fast approaching the sum of $260,000 per month. Official figures 
for the year 1896-97 give the following estimates of the production 
of these plants during the year: Indigo, 39,070 kilograms, valued at 
$69,968; Brazil wood, 6,169,966 kilograms, $154,991; Campeche or log 



Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos — Mexico, 1893. 



MEXICO. 175 

wood, 76,638,180 kilograms,:§2,099,419, and "moral" wood, 4,578,960 
kilograms, valued at $66,685, "Chiapas and Colima were the largest pro- 
ducers of indigo, being credited with 18,200 and 10,200 kilograms, 
respectively. Campeche produced 3,220,000 kilograms of Brazil wood 
and 38,569,970 kilograms of Campeche or logwood, Oaxaca and Sinaloa 
over 1,000,000 kilograms of Brazil wood each, Yucatan and Tabasco 
27,000,000 and 10,000,000 kilograms of logwood, respectively, and Vera- 
cruz over 2,000,000 kilograms of " moral " wood. 

Fodder plants abound, the principal being the pard {Ohrysopagon 
avenaceus), guinea grass, alfalfa or lucern, ramon {Trophis americana)^ 
and the ojlte {Brosinum alicastrum). There are 445 classified species 
of graminaceous plants. A profitable crop for the irrigated lands of 
the plateau country is lucern. Green alfalfa retails in the streets of 
Mexico City at 15 cents for 25 pounds. From five to nine crops can 
be raised yearl}^, and under good conditions the yield will be 10 tons 
per crop to the acre. 

There are immense quantities of building lumber and cabinet woods, 
many species of which are yet unknown in foreign markets, although 
they are classed among the most precious. Half of the mahogany 
obtained by the United States comes from Mexico. 

An official list of the woods in Mexico in 1897^ gives 193 varie- 
ties, among which mahogany outranks them all, with a valuation of 
11,381,984, the total production of woods being valued at $16,204,536. 
Among the woods used as constructive material the principal are the 
"Algarrobo" {Hvmenea courharil), "Almendrillo " {Pomus occiden- 
tales)^ "Ceiba" {Eriodendon anfractuosimi), "Granadillo" {Byra 
ebam.us)^ " Guanacastle " {Lignum-mtce)^ ^^ Guajacan''^ {Guayacuin ver- 
ticale) iron wood {Robinia sp.)^ " Mezquitillo " {Cassia occidentalis)^ 
Ocote, yellow and white {Pinus harhorvjegii and P. ayacahuite), white 
oak {Quercus jalapensis), and several others. 

The following are among the principal cabinet woods in the country: 
Msihoganj {Suete7iia mahogani)^ "Caobilla" {Croton Iticidum), cedar 
{Oedrella odorata), three varieties, one white and two red; ebony 
{Pyospiros ebenum), three varieties, one of them called green ebony 
{Chlm'oxylon); "Gateado" {Suetenia sp.), rosewood {Tecoma 7nulti- 
flora), and several others. 

Among the flora of this favored country are many trees, shrubs, 
etc., yielding tannic acid, among which may be mentioned the cascalote 
{Rhus Oariaria)^ timbe {Mimosa sp.), mangrove {Rhizophora mangle), 
white mangrove {Avicennia tomentosa), and the canaigre. The first 
named produces a very excellent tanning material from its bark. The 
value of the exportations of this material for the fiscal year 1897-98 
was $49,021. 

The canaigre is a tuber, and resembles the sugar beet in shape, while 

1 Anuario Estadlstico de la Kepublica Mexicana, 1897: M6xico, 1898, 



176 MEXICO. 

the leaf is similar to that of the rhubarb or pie plant. It is indigenous 
to Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Lower California. Of recent 
years it has been cultivated to a considerable extent in New Mexico 
and Texas; but not much attention has been paid to the industry in 
Mexico, although it produces from 25 to 30 per cent of tannic acid. 
The root can be used not only for common tanning purposes, but also 
for fine saddlery and fancy leathers. It can be used alone or in connec- 
tion with other materials. It is noted for its quickness and thorough- 
ness in tanning, as well as for the color, beauty, consistency, and plia- 
bility imparted to the leather. 

Canaigre is a dry-climate plant, but its growth is assisted materially 
by irrigation. Until quite recently the root had to be gathered by 
digging the wild plant, but experience has demonstrated that it can be 
successfully cultivated, and there is no question that it improves in 
size, quality, yield, and in percentage of tannic acid. The annual yield 
per acre is about the same as that of beets (60 to 80 tons). In New 
Mexico the cost of cultivation per acre is about $23. 60, including irri- 
gation and water rental; but in Mexico, especially in the central and 
southern sections of the country, the rains will furnish all the necessary 
moisture, thereby reducing very materially the expense. This plant 
has only attracted public attention as a commercial product within the 
past five years, and it would seem that those employed in agricultural 
pursuits in the neighboring Republic would do well to add one more 
item to their productions, for it is evident that the market for canaigre 
is practically unlimited, since the oak and hemlock barks, so exten- 
sively used in the tannic industry of the United States, are becoming 
very scarce, and the price of tannin is constantly on the increase. 

According to Mexican official statistics for 1897, the production of 
tanning plants in 1896-97 amounted to 29,749,842 kilograms, valued at 
$278,458 silver, the production of "Cascalote" being represented by 
2,010,675 kilograms for $49,024, the balance being reported under the 
head of " Other tanning barks." 

Yticca^ called nianioca in South America (two varieties — the sweet 
Jatroj>ha manioc^ and the bitter, Manihot utiliss.), is a shrub about 4 feet 
in height, with from 6 to 10 tubers to each plant, weighing from 1 to 
12 pounds each. It is an important product of the State of Chiapas. 
It commences to yield, in good soil, one year after planting. The 
tubers, besides yielding starch, furnish food to man and cattle. Two 
and a half acres of land will yield 6,000 pounds of tubers, which will 
produce 3,000 pounds of starch. 

The States of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Zacatecas, San Luis 
Potosi, and some others of the northern-central part of Mexico include 
many districts which are eminently fitted to produce the sugar beet. 
This industry has not as jet taken any firm root in that country, but 
within a year or two last past American capital has become interested 



MEXICO. 177 

in the subject, and in the month of June, 1897, a wealthy capitalist 
of Chicago leased several thousand acres of land near Tampico for a 
syndicate of Americans who purpose putting the entire tract in sugar 
beets. An immense beet-sugar factory will be erected near the land, 
and it is claimed that with the cheap labor procurable and the wonder- 
ful richness of the soil big profits will accrue from the enterprise. 

Ginger {Zenziber officinalis) grows wild in various parts of Mexico, 
and if properly cultivated ought to yield 1,000 per acre, according to 
Romero. 

The percentage of arable land in Mexico is, perhaps, as large as it 
is in the United States. The lowlands along the Pacific Ocean and 
the Gulf of Mexico are generally well supplied with moisture by rain- 
falls and heavy dews, but artificial irrigation must be resorted to upon 
the plateaus to produce good results. 

The modes of cultivation in Mexico in many places still difi'er but 
little from those employed by the ancient Egyptians. This, of 
course, does not refer to large plantations, where in the last few 
years the proprietors have introduced modern methods and agricultural 
machinery. But among the small landholders and the Indians 
wooden-beam plows with a small iron shoe are still used. These 
make a furrow 5 inches wide by 5 deep. A hoe is also used, which 
often weighs from 3 to 5 pounds. A saw-tooth sickle completes the 
outfit with which the ordinary Mexican crops are raised and gathered. 
The plow is nothing more than a forked stick, the shorter fork being 
iron shod and sharpened. The longer is lashed with rawhide thongs 
to the yoke of oxen that draws this prehistoric implement. It takes 
about four men and four yoke of oxen to do the work of one man and 
one horse. 

Up to within a very short period (and it is the case at present, 
except on the largest plantations) all thrashing of grain was done by 
driving horses or mules around in a ring upon the straw which is on 
the ground. The winnowing is done by men tossing the grain and 
chaff in the air with scoop shovels. Mexicans, as a rule, object to 
thrashing machines because they leave the straw whole, while by 
employing their method the constant trampling cuts it up as fine as 
though run through a feed cutter, and as straw is universally used as 
feed, any further preparation is unnecessary. 

The grain is transported from the field to the farmhouse or station 
on ponderous two-wheeled carts, there being 3 pounds of cart to 1 of 
load for the oxen to pull. Better facilities for communication between 
the United States and the neignboring Republic have changed some of 
these methods, as before stated; but there is still one drawback to the 
general use of improved American agricultural machinery in the coun- 
try, which, however, is gradually disappearing by the establishment 
of machine-repairing shops. The machinery, as a rule, is costly and 
65lA 12 



178 MEXICO. 

unfamiliar, and should any part of it break, rare is the Mexican black- 
smith who can repair it, as usually the broken part is of cast iron, and 
the distance from the manufactory causes long delay and heavy expense. 
Official statistics give the number of haciendas, or plantations, in 
the Republic at 8,101, devoted to the cultivations following: Cereals, 
3,400; sugarcane, 1,395; henequen395; coffee, 373; maguey (/ji^we), 
279; cacao, 239; cotton, 135; maguey {mescal), 134; tobacco, 92; cabinet 
woods, 69; indigo, 29; fruits, 6; grapes, 5; and 1,560 devoted to cattle 
raising. 



CHAPTER VIIL 

STOCK RAISING. 

The raising of cattle has always been one of the most important 
industries of Mexico and one of the least restricted by the Spaniards 
of the eighteenth centur^^, who, hj means of special legislation, gave 
encouragement to it to the extent of making it the favorite occupation 
of the inhabitants of the country. In earlier times cattle were of 
little value except for their hides, which formed an important item of 
export; later, however, they were turned to better advantage, the 
hides being manufactured into leather and the tallow used for the 
manufacture of soap. During the eighteenth centur}^ sheep raising also 
became an important industry in the northern and central provinces. 

The States of the northern frontier are so well adapted to such pur- 
poses that they may be said to be immense cattle ranges. The excel- 
lent situation of the lands, as well as their generally well -watered 
condition, will, as has been said by persons who have given study to 
the matter, make Mexico a formidable rival of the Argentine Republic. 

Although the population of the United States has increased surpris- 
ingly within the past few years, there has been a large falling off in 
the number of cattle. Statistics show that there has been a diminu- 
tion of 8,000,000 head of cattle within that period, so that it can be 
readily seen that cattle raising for the market in the neighboring 
Republic presents alluring prospects. Considerable interest has been 
manifested of late in this industry, and the Mexican railroad officials 
have been endeavoring to build it up, with marked success. 

Mexican cattle as a rule are small in size, ranging between 900 and 
1,200 pounds in weight. This latter weight is considered in the Eng- 
lish market as small, and the suggestion has been made by British 
traders that it would be wise for the Mexican cattle raisers to import 
English shorthorn bulls for the purpose of breeding larger cattle. 
The Department of Promotion has taken a deep interest in this subject 
and many reforms have been introduced to the betterment of the stock. 
Cotton-seed meal is one of the prominent products of Mexico, and, 
although it is one of the foods to be relied on chiefly for fattening 
cattle, nearly the entire output of this article is sent every year to the 
United States and Europe. 

179 



180 MEXICO. 

It has been estimated that the total cost of fattening a steer is about 
$15, silver, and as there is an unlimited demand in Europe for choice 
meats at about 12 cents, gold, per pound, and no import duties to be 
paid, it can readily be seen that there are large benefits to be derived 
from the industry of cattle raising. 

The States of Durango, Sonora, Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, 
Tamaulipas, Veracruz, and Michoacan present admirable fields for the 
development of this great industry. The rich pasture lands of the 
latter State feed the thousands of cattle for the sustenance of the resi- 
dents of the capital of the Mexican Republic. 

According to the latest statistics published, in 1897, there were 
slaughtered for provisioning the capital 254,722 head of cattle of all 
kinds, weighing 21,390,688 kilograms, and valued at $3,482,810 silver, 
as follows: Beeves, 94,304, valued at $1,791,776; sheep, 99,289, at 
$236,307; and hogs, 61,129, at $1,454,727. The total consumption in 
the Republic during the same year was 493,454 beeves, 648,528 sheep, 
and 403,145 hogs, weighing in all 114,164,856 kilograms and valued 
at $22,989,665 silver. The States of Chihuahua, Guerrero, Morelos, 
Tamaulipas, Tlascala, and Veracruz do not appear in the official list. 

Some of the States above named are not well provided with water, 
but it has been demonstrated that with small expense all the necessary 
water can be obtained by the boring of wells. In the State of Guana- 
juato a company, under the patronage of the State government, some 
years since bored wells and began the breeding and fattening of cattle 
on a large scale. This company has imported into the country a con- 
siderable number of specimens of the best breeds of horned cattle from 
the United States and elsewhere, and, judging from appearances, its 
efforts are meeting with gratifying success. The country around 
Tampico is wonderfully rich, the grass growing waist high there all 
the year round. It is deserving of investigation by those contem- 
plating going into the business of cattle raising. 

In the northern and eastern part of the Republic, lean stock can be 
bought at from $5 to $15 per head, and sold when fattened at from $20 
to $45 per head. San Luis Potosi, southern Tamaulipas, and northern 
Veracruz are well adapted to cattle raising. The j9a^'« grass grows 
here in abundance. It is evergreen, very nourishing, and is a weed 
exterminator. It has been estimated that an investment of $30,000 
gold in this industry will yield a net profit of $20,000 in six months. 

Mexico raises great numbers of cattle for the United States and 
does so under better conditions of climate than the latter country, for 
the stock raisers of this country lose thousands every year owing to 
the rigorous winters and severe summers, while in Mexico perennial 
spring smiles on man and beast. 

Hog raising is said to be one of the most profitable industries in 
which the Mexican agriculturist can engage. The native hog is hard to 



MEXICO. 181 

fatten, but by the importation of improved stock this drawback may be 
promptly overcome. Of recent years breeders have been doing this, 
and a marked advance has been made in the industry. 

Other live stock, such as horses, sheep, goats, etc., are also raised 
on the Mexican ranges for export. 

According to Mexican official statistics, during the fiscal year 1896-97 
the neighboring Republic exported live stock as follows: 

Horses, 2,774 head, valued at $82, 042 

Cattle, 313,633 head, valued at .' 3, 575, 476 

Sheep, 122,843 head, valued at 79, 553 

Mules and jacks, 4,482 head, valued at 214, 918 

Other animals (including 8,810 hogs) , valued at > 56, 701 

Making a total of 462,542 head, valued at $4,008,690, Mexican silver. 

The imports of live stock into Mexico during the same period 
amounted to 5,661,686 head, valued at $566,694, as follows: Horses, 
1,983, value, $98,218; hogs, 5,279,948, value, $376,870; cattle, 370,508, 
value, $51,828; sheep and goats, 7,329, value, $13,556, and mules and 
jacks, 1,918, value, $26,222. 

The Federal District possesses fine pasture grounds, and the cattle 
industry is there carried on extensively, a large local trade in dairy 
products being one of the features of that section. 



CHAPTER IX. 

MINES AND MINING. 

Nature has richly endowed Mexico with resources well-nigh count- 
less, but in the bestowal of mineral resources she has been most 
lavish. Beneath the surface of that volcanic ridge raised between 
two great bodies of water lie buried treasures incomparable, and 
although innumerable mining enterprises have for nearly 400 years 
exploited the metai -bearing regions and have extracted fabulous 
quantities of precious metals, by far the greater part is yet to be 
laid bare. 

At the beginning of this century Humboldt estimated the mines in 
Mexico to number 3,000. In recent years hardly that many have 
been worked, but the extension of the railroads and the bringing into 
closer communication of remote sections of the country have brought 
about a revival of the interest in this great industry. 

The great mining region runs from the northwest to the southeast, 
following the direction of the Sierra Madre cordillera, extending from 
Sonora to the south of Oaxaca, a distance of about 2,674 kilometers. 
The immense parallelogram this region forms has a width of about 
402 kilometers. 

The richest mines have been discovered on the western slope of the 
Cordilleras at an elevation of about from 915 to 2,440 meters above 
sea level. 

Most of the historical mines are situated here, having been opened 
up by the Spaniards in 1526 and worked until 1700, with little formality 
and less science. 

The English first undertook mining operations in 1824, and con- 
ducted them for ten years with no very profitable results. 

Data collected from official sources give the number of mineral dis- 
tricts in the Republic as 1,092, as follows: 



District. 


Cinna- 
bar. 


Lead. 


Tin. 


Copper. 


Silver, 

silver 

and 

lead, etc. 


Gold, 

mines 

and 

placers. 


Coal, pe- 
troleum, 
etc. 


Total. 












3 

12 






3 










2 


8 


1 


23 






























Chihuahua 




3 


1 




42 
8 
63 


8 


3 

7 
1 


57 








16 


Durango 










7 


71 



182 



MEXICO. 



18B 



District. 



Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Michoaean 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

San Luis Potosi 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tepic 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

Zacatecas 



Total. 



Cinna- 
bar. 



Lead. 



Tin. 



Copper. 



Silver, 

silver 

and 

lead, etc. 



553 



Gold, 

mines 

and 

placers. 



Coal, pe- 
troleum, 
etc. 



Total. 



237 



176 
90 
28 
45 
20 
43 
18 

9 
52 
32 
13 
41 
69 
112 

1 
21 

6 

2 
94 
51 



1,093 



This table gives only the most important mineral products of what 
is known as the metal-bearing belt. The States of Coahuila, Nuevo 
Leon, and Tamaulipas do not lie within the limits of this region, and 
their mineral deposits seem to be almost entirely abandoned. 

During the year 1898-99, according to the Boletin de Estadistica 
Fiscal, the number of existing titles to mining properties paying taxes, 
in compliance with the law of June 6, 1892, and other regulations, 
amounted to 8,970, covering an area of 84,557 hectares, divided as fol- 
lows among the various States and Territories: 



states, etc. 



Aguascalientes 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Coahuila 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

MichoacAn 

Morelos 

Nuevo Le6n 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

San Luis Potosi 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tamaulipas 

Veracruz 

Zacatecas 

Territorio de Tepic 

Territorio de la Baja California. 
Federal District 



Total 



Properties. 



11 

1,092 

314 

1,460 

539 

277 

463 

328 

242 

274 

38 

199 

307 

68 

55 

256 

366 

1,205 

63 

4 

942 

92 

276 

1 

8,970 



Hectares. 



334 

143 
9,035 
5,768 
10, 041 
5,926 
3,602 
3, 526 
1,824 
3,020 
3,268 

553 
3,995 
2,191 

648 

496 
7, 042 
3,451 
9,135 

615 

24 

7, 559 

524 

1,820 

6 

84,557 



42 



69 
75 
92 
72 
60 
48 
21 
73 
29 
56 
28 
23 
78 
31 
31 
47 
97 
51 



38 



184 Mexico. 

The class of minerals and number of claims were: 



Minerals. 



Gold 

Gold and silver 

Gold, silver, and lead . . . 

Silver 

Silver and copper 

Silver and lead 

Mercury 

Sulphur 

Gold and copper 

Gold, silver, and copper 
Silver, copper, and lead 

Copper 

Opals 

Salt 

Copper and lead 

Copper and iron 

Lead 

Iron 

Antimony 

Tin 

Silver and manganese . . 

Silver and mercury 

Manganese 

Zinc 



Properties. 



872 

1,932 

40 

4,011 

192 

1,162 

117 

33 

69 

55 

12 

221 

20 

2 

5 

23 

31 

109 

39 

15 

3 

2 

4 

1 



8,970 



Hectares. 



8,666 

15, 763 

307 

33, 135 

1,637 

10,848 

5,308 

147 

857 

896 

147 

2,183 

55 

20 

31 

158 

293 

2,383 

1,547 

98 

85 

13 

7 

15 



84,557 



45 
1 
19 
95 
15 
56 
61 



38 



In Chihuahua numberless mineral districts are known to e sist con- 
taining more than 166 gold, copper, lead, mercuri , silver, salt, and 
coal mines. Other minerals usually accompany the ubstancc s named, 
such as iron, zinc, antimony, arsenic, etc. 

In the district and near the city of Chihuahua is situated the cele- 
brated Santa Eulalia mine, one of the oldest in the country, the pro- 
ducts of which have left a monument in the very handsome parish 
church of San Francisco, erected in the city between the years 1717 
and 1789 with the proceeds of a tax of one real (12^ cents) on each half 
pound of silver got from the mine. The total sum thus secured is 
stated to be $800,000. During the earl}^ part of the year 1897 at the 
properties of the Gold Hill Mining Company, in the southwestern 
part of Chihuahua, the result of an experimental run of 100 tons of 
tailings from the surface ore of the Rosario mine was a 30-ounce bar 
of gold. So primitive were the methods employed by the original 
workers of the greater part of the Mexican mines that the Indians 
often make a fair living by working over the tailings. 

Sonora is one of the richest as well as most important mining centers. 
It is noted for its high-class metals, among which are gold, silver, mer- 
cury, and iron. Here abound the soft or lead ores, which are so easily 
worked and aid so materially in smelting. There are also other min- 
erals, such as asbestus, copperas, magnetic iron ore, muriate and 
carbonate of soda, and saltpeter. Native silver is found in these 
districts in considerable quantities, and native iron has also been dis- 
covered in the Sierra Madre, Papagueria, and the vicinity of the Colo- 
rado River. 

Sonora has lately been turning out plent}^ of gold, and the output 



MEXICO. 185 

will be largely increased since the Yaqui Reservation has been thrown 
open. Rich placers are known to exist there, and it is expected that 
the influx of prospectors will be great in the near future. Over 200 
prospectors went into the Yaqui country in August, 1897, and it is 
stated that an Arizona miner came out recently with $80,000, the prod- 
uct of the work of three men during three months. Of the six mil- 
lions of gold exported from Mexico during the year 1896, three and 
a quarter millions were furnished by Sonora. 

Sinaloa has also more than 100 mining districts, the mineral deposits 
being classified into six formations. Calciferous and quartz ore pre- 
vail with silver in a native state or combined with sulphur, antimony, 
and arsenic, with more or less traces of gold. Veins of gold-bearing 
quartz exist in some localities, and deposits of iron ore, sulphite of 
lead, zinc, copper, and silica are to be found. 

The districts of Durango run mostly to silver, yet many other metals 
exist, such as talc and iron, the latter being found in inexhaustible 
quantities in the Cerro del Mercado, which is a solid mass of iron, aver- 
aging 6Q per cent pure. This deposit was discovered in 1562 by Vas- 
quez del Mercado. The cerro, or hill, is 4,800 feet long, 1,100 feet 
wide, and 640 feet high, and according to calculations, over 300,000,000 
tons of solid iron might be extracted from it. From published 
accounts it appears that the National Mexican Iron and Steel Company, 
most of the stock of which is held by Americans residing in the United 
States, owns 111 claims and has an iron foundry at the foot of the 
mountain. E. Stalh Kueche & Co. own 40 claims, and sell iron to the 
Monterey smelters. The Monterey Smelting and Refining Company 
has just denounced 16 claims; Messrs. Francisco Irasoque, Diego Verea, 
and Martin Saltser own 50 claims; John H. Campbell owns 41 claims, 
and Messrs. Carlos Bracho and Henry C. Creel own 32 claims.^ 

This State has suffered greatly, owing to a lack of facilities for haul- 
ing ores; but the difficulty will soon be overcome by the building of a 
branch by the Mexican Central Railway. 

Jalisco is another silver-producing region, and furnishes also copper 
and lead ores and coal. 

Of the many districts in Michoacan a few only are being worked at 
the present time, those of Tlalpujahua and Angangueo. This is due 
to the very limited population of the State and lack of the necessary 
capital. The principal deposits are of copper. In 1897 a company 
was formed in London, with a capital of $400,000, to carry on a gen- 
eral mining business in the Ario and Morelia districts of Michoacan. 
The Rothschilds have bought some copper mining property in this State 
and will build a road from the Pacific coast to the mines. 

Zacatecas is the great silver-producing State. It is estimated that 
in the last three centuries its many mines, which were first worked b}'^ 

' Bulletin of the Bureau of the American Republics for September, 1899, page 312. 



186 MEXICO. 

the Spaniards in 1540, but -which had pi-eviously been worked in a rude 
way by the Indians, have jnelded over a thousand million of dollars. 

Guerrero has always been considered as one of the richest mineral 
sections of America. Prospectors heretofore have been compelled to 
abandon rich discoveries on account of a lack of transportation facilities 
and scarcity of labor. The construction of the Mexico, Cuernavaca 
and Pacific Railway has commenced to open up this wonderful country, 
with the result that no less than three large American companies have 
sent experts to investigate the marvelous wealth of this belt, which is 
comparatively unknown. Many natives in the State named make a 
living by washing out placer gold in the crudest possible manner. 
Experts announce that there is an abundance of gold in this portion 
of the country, and that the only need is the presence of intelligent 
prospectors to find it. The gold runs from 10 to 12i ounces to the 
ton. Copper is very abundant; and there are also rich carbonate of 
lead ores. 

The State of Oaxaca has long been recognized to be rich in gold, 
and much work has been done by the arrastra system, by which a good 
deal of the metal was lost in the tailings. There is the best authority 
for the statement that some dumps there contain thousands of tons 
which will assay as high as an ounce to the ton. 

Guanajuato is another far-famed silver-producing State, and has 
been and still is the center of great exploitation. The district bearing 
the name of the State was discovered in 1548, and has been worked 
almost continuously ever since that date, the output of its mines 
reaching fabulous figures. Native gold has been discovered in this 
district, and the late denouncing and registering of mines has dis- 
closed the presence of other minerals, such as tin and bismuth. Pros- 
pecting is still going on, and not unfrequentlj" is the news of another 
rich strike heralded abroad. The estimated annual output of the 
mines is 16,000,000. 

In the mineral district of Queretaro are to be found lead metals, 
cinnabar, and the ever-present silver. The mines are numerous and 
important. The celebrated San Juan Nepomuceno or El Doctor mine 
is situated here, in the Cadereyta district. It is one of the oldest and 
richest of Mexico, its production being so great two hundred years 
ago that it paid the Spanish Government 118,000,000 in taxes. It is 
in this State that the fine opals, which reflect every prismatic color and 
are much sought after, are found. Great beds of these stones exist 
on the celebrated hacienda of La Esperanza. The opals from this 
place are sold in the City of Mexico by itinerant venders at remark- 
ably low prices.^ The most important deposit of these stones pro- 
duced some years ago from $80,000 to $100,000 a year. 

The State of Morelos has but one mineral district worthy the name, 

^ Large opals are sold in Queretaro for |2 each, and small ones for 50 cents. 



MEXICO. 187 

that of Huautla, which, like most of those in the country, is silver 
producing. 

Puebla's districts yield native gold, silver, oxide of manganese, and 
pyrites, as well as coal and iron ore. Here also exist quarries of beau- 
tiful onyx and what is known as Puebla marble. This onyx is much 
used in the United States for decorating houses and in the jeweler's 
trade. In the mountains bordering on the States of Zacatecas, San 
Luis Potosi, Coahuila, and Nuevo Leon extensive quarries of onyx and 
marble of most beautiful colors and varieties, equal in every w&j to 
the Puebla product, are being worked. 

Among the mineral regions in the eastern cordillera, that of Zome- 
lahuacan, in the State of Veracruz, deserves mention, three classes of 
metal being found there — lead, argentiferous copper, and iron. Gold 
nuggets have been secured there also, as well as very rich malachite 
in scattered veins, the mother vein not having been discovered up to 
date. 

The State of Mexico is rich in mines of native gold and silver, as 
well as those of copper, iron, oxide of iron, and manganese. 

The Territory of Lower California is rich in minerals. The penin- 
sula is barren and without water. The mountain ridge forming the 
backbone of the peninsula is a continuation of the coast range of 
Upper California and is interwoven almost over its entire extent with 
metallic veins of all descriptions. Near San Jose and Cape St. Lucas 
there are argentiferous and auriferous outcroppings and in the muni- 
cipalities of La Paz, El Triunfo, and San Antonio veins of gold, 
silver, iron, and other substances are exhibited on the surface of the 
mountains. 

In the districts of Comondu, Loreto, San Luis, and Muleje, in the 
northern part of the peninsula, rich copper mines abound. The Boleo 
mines, situated in this part, have for years been the chief source of the 
copper supply. There are also other metals, such as mica, iron, tin, 
and oxides of iron, besides gypsum, enormous piles or hills of which 
are to be found marble, alabaster, and sandstone. Gold was discov- 
ered near Santa Gertrudis, north of Muleje, about 1884, and it is said 
that the mountains and gulches in that vicinity have rich veins of this 
metal. 

In this district there are also solid mountains of iron. The frontier 
district of Lower California is noted for its gold diggings and ledges, 
mica, and other mineral substances, such as sulphur, soda, and salt. 
American capitalists are largely interested in this region. 

Besides the minerals named there are in the peninsula plumbago, 
sulphuret of lead, porphyry, prismatic pyrites, sulphur, oxide of anti- 
mony and lead, carbonate and phosphate of lead, hydroxide of iron, 
and hydrosilicate of copper. Near Todos Santos some lime quarries 
exist. 



188 MEXICO. 

The largest silver mining enterprise in Lower California is the 
Progreso Silver Mining Company, having mills and works, with 
improved American and English machinery, at El Triunfo. The 
other substances, such as antimony, lead, iron, sulphur, arsenic, etc., 
are not extracted but are left to run with the tailings. The ores are 
here milled under the lixiviation process, the absence of lead in the ores 
and the presence of other substances preventing smelting. In 1884 
the annual copper production of the mines in the district of Muleje 
was about 6,000 tons, and it has increased considerably since then. 

The State of Hidalgo deserves more extended mention here, as it 
was in one of its districts that a miner discovered the patio process 
for reducing ores — a process which to this day is most in use in Mexico, 
and one which no miner or mining engineer has been able to super- 
sede by a more economical one for reducing the peculiar ores in which 
that country abounds. The great mineral district of this State is situ- 
ated in the vicinity of Pachuca, the principal mines being the Real del 
Monte, Atontolico el Chico, and Zimapan. 

Pachuca, with its rich cluster of mines, lies on a plain about 60 
miles from the City of Mexico, and is one of the oldest mining centers 
in the country, having been worked for more than three and one-half 
centuries. The district within which it lies now has a population of 
98,269, a large proportion of which is Indian miners. It was here 
that the patio process of amalgamation was discovered by the cele- 
brated Mexican miner, Bartolome de Medina, in 1557. The very 
hacienda de heneficio^ or reduction works, where this discovery was 
made are still to be seen in the town. 

Sulphate of silver is the prevailing metal, although native silver 
mixed with ore is found in some of the mines of this district. Most 
of these mines, as well as those in other States, are still operated in 
the primitive Mexican fashion. The metal is brought up in rawhide 
sacks by means of ropes made of the fiber of the maguey wound about 
a large mal'acate (horse or mule windlass), and the peons or laborers 
carry pieces of ore weighing sometimes between 100 and 200 pounds 
on their backs from " headings " of the levels to the main shaft. Some 
foreigners are employed in the mines of Pachuca and elsewhere at 
good wages, but they generally are superintendents, engineers, 
bosses, etc. 

There are in the Republic abundant sulphur deposits, particularly 
those of Popocatapetl, Pico de Orizaba, and Tajimaroa, several deposits 
of salt, rock crystal, marble, jasper, fine building stone, and the beau- 
tiful onyx of Tecali. 

The most celebrated salt deposits of Mexico are those of Penon 
Blanco, in San Luis Potosi, their product containing from 70 to 80 per 
cent of chloride of sodium. On the coasts of both oceans there are 
also a great number of salt mines, the most useful being those of 



MEXICO. 



189 



Yucatan, whence comes the salt for reducing the product of the mines 
of Hidalgo. 

Mexico also has deposits of precious stones, such as the opal, topaz, 
emerald, agate, amethyst, and garnet. It is related that one of 
the heroes of Mexican independence. General Guerrero, possessed 
some diamonds which had been given him by one of his soldiers, who 
had found them during an expedition in that part of the Sierra Madre 
running through the State of Guerrero. The field or locality whence 
came these precious stones, of which the General gave but vague infor- 
mation, has been vainly sought by various prospectors. A dispatch 
to the daily press of the United States in June, 1897, referring to this 
generally accepted historical fact, reports the alleged rediscovery of 
these fields, but nothing further has been heard in the premises. 

The most interesting fact in connection with the mining industry of 
Mexico is the recent increase in her gold output. In 1893 the value 
of the gold produced was only 3f per cent of that of the silver. In 
1894 it rose to about 14 per cent; in 1895 it increased from 14,896 
pounds to 18,639 pounds in fine gold. 

The exports of gold bullion from Mexico since 1888-89, according to 
Mexican ofiicial figures, have been as follows: 



Year. 


Value 

(Mexican 

silver.) 


Year. 


Value 

(Mexican 

silver.) 


1888-89 


1349, 506 
457, 608 
612, 618 
751,407 
357,887 
155, 954 


1894-95 


$4, 139, 645 
5, 246, 418 


1889-90 


1895-96 


1890-91 


1896-97 


5,858,366 
6, 364, 308 
7,347,760 


1891-92 . ... 


1897-98 


1892-93 


1898-99 


1893-94 





The late Don Matias Romero, when Mexican Minister at Washington 
predicted that Mexico is destined to become one of the largest pro 
ducers of gold in the world, basing his prediction on the fact that 
heretofore the mining of gold has been merely an incident of the 
extraction of silver, and that when the amount of the yellow metal in 
silver was small it was not separated; but since the value of gold has 
appreciated to so great a degree the mining of the metal has assumed 
much larger proportions. 

As regards the production of silver, according to the "International 
.Economist" of Berlin, quoted by the consul-general of the United 
States at Frankfort in his report of November 29, 1899: "Enormous 
quantities of silver still come from the chief producing countries — 
Mexico and the United States — and Mexico especially seems to be 
inexhaustible." The figures given for Mexico, in the article quoted, 
are as follows: 



Year. 


Ounces, 
fine. 


Year. 


Ounces, 
fine. 


1896 


45, 719, 982 
53, 903, 180 


1898 .... 


56,738,000 


1897 









190 MEXICO. 

The exports of silver bullion since 1888-89 are as follows: 



Year. 


Value 
(Mexican 
silver.) 


Year. 


Value 

(Mexican 

silver.) 


1888 89 


$6,629,260 
7, 259, 956 
6,751,217 
6,559,668 
5, 148, 202 
3, 130, 823 


1894-95 


$18,803,867 
26, 345, IGO 
32, 137, 257 


1889 90 


1895-96 


1890 91 


1896-97 


1891 92 


1897-98 


35,721,275 


1892-93 


1898-99 


40, 429, 954 


1893-94 











An American mining expert, who traveled through the leading 
mining camps of Mexico in the year 1897, states that in every place 
visited unusual activity was noticeable; that old districts which had 
been indifferently worked for many years were employing larger 
forces, putting in improved machinery, and turning out more ore than 
ever before. New discoveries had been made where the ore was of a 
much higher grade than that produced by the mines which had been 
worked for two or three hundred years. Very few mines were for 
sale, and the prices were unusually high. 

The President, in a late message to Congress (1898), affirms that 
since 1892 the progress in mining has been remarkable, as is evidenced 
by the number of new grants that have been issued. The total num- 
ber of grants issued under the new law was 8,313, embracing a super- 
ficial area of 66,363 hectares. The Chief Magistrate was especially 
pleased with the remarkable increase in the gold output, and stated 
that the development of the mining industry is further evidenced by 
the increase in the exportation of ore. According to data published 
by the Department of Finance for the fiscal year 1897-98, the total 
value of the mineral products of all kinds passing through the cus- 
tom-houses was $91,250,000 in round numbers, showing an increase 
of $10,500,000 over the value of similar products exported in the pre- 
vious years. Silver figures among said products to the value of 
$16,000,000, silver valuation, copper to the value of $4,700,000, lead 
to the value of $3,000,000, and on a smaller scale antimony, zinc, 
plumbago, coal, sulphur, asphalt, chalk, and some building materials. 

From reports of the Mexican International Railroad it appears that 
this line alone, during the year 1896, transported silver, lead, and iron 
ores and bullion to the amount of 121,916 tons, exceeding the movement 
of 1895 by 508 carloads, or 16,612 tons. The increase in ore ship- 
ments is evidenced by the addition of three stations to those from 
which this commodity was formerly shipped. The Mexican Central 
road carries ore to the extent of 40 per cent of the total amount of its 
freight. 

It is stated upon reliable authority that while Mexico has produced 
a fabulous amount of the precious metals during the past four hundred 
years, there are still many sections of the country where the ground 
has not even been broken. 



MEXICO. 



191 



By those having knowledge of the subject it is asserted that the 
Mexican mining laws are better than those of the United States and 
that there is less danger of litigation. The heavy stamp tax results in 
mines being incorporated upon a small capitalization, from 2,000 to 
4,000 shares, at $10 to $100 per share, thus preventing what is known 
as "kiting." 

The exports of metals and other mineral substances, exclusive of 
gold and silver bullion, but including gold and silver coin, since 
1894-95, areas follows in Mexican pesos: 



Minerals. 



1894-95. 



1895-96. 



1896-97. 



1898-99. 



Antimony 

Copper , 

Copper ores , 

Tin 

Tin ores 

Gold ores 

Silver ores , 

Lead 

Lead ores .'., 

Zinc ores 

Asphalt , 

Quicksilver , 

Coal 

Plumbago 

Mexican gold coin . , 
Mexican silver coin 



$7, 291 

2, 148, 184 

564, 201 

16, 879 

2,574 

59, 660 

10, 935, 353 

1, 807, 402 

20, 416 



$24, 240 

3, 909, 485 

11, 610 

6,032 

778 

160, 565 

10, 885, 479 

2,531,624 

23, 920 



150, 916 

3,920,201 

2,099 



U, 631, 411 

2, 277, 882 

2, 493, 749 

2,305 



262 

900 

232, 919 

33, 264 

164, 113 

17, 077, 119 



2,082 

3,780 

270, 176 

8,771 

169, 794 

20, 377, 663 



349, 082 

10, 680, 732 

2, 814, 084 

118 

20, 388 

144 

3,150 

399, 474 

8,750 

93, 632 

14, 578, 958 



389, 393 
11,137,996 
2, 909, 705 



8101,318 

4, 135, 613 

1,465,521 

4 

208 

992, 929 

9, 854, 850 

3, 786, 144 



22, 323 
190 



840 
1,382 



438, 216 

8,663 

116,428 

18, 214, 989 



507, 902 

18, 237 

212,422 

14, 116, 935 



Among the most recent mineral discoveries in Mexico the following 
have been reported: 

A large deposit of copper and silver ore, a short distance from the 
terminus of the Rio Grande and Pacific Railroad; in the State of 
Durango, a new silver mine at Coneto Camp; a valuable gold deposit at 
Sauces Camp, and the old Santa Fe mine at the same point is again 
being worked; the Eureka mine near Canatlan has been opened, and 
half a mile southeast of Gavalon mines a new mine of valuable silver 
has also been opened up. In the State of Sonora, the Mesa Quemada 
mines are producing good results. In working in the tunnel to com- 
municate with the Guillermina mine a rich vein of high-grade silver 
ore was discovered by the operators. The placer mines of Palomas 
are reported as producing many nuggets of fine gold. In the State of 
Guerrero a new silver mine has been discovered on the banks of the 
Hueymatla River, near Taxco el Viejo. The discovery of a valuable 
vein of gold ore at a point close to Los Olios, in the State of Michoa- 
can, is also reported. 

In the State of Tepic, the Tajitos mine near Santa Maria del Oro is 
again being worked by Mexican capital; the ore contains iron, gold, 
and silver. In the State of Hidalgo a new silver mine has been opened 
near Mineral del Oro. At Sonora, Mexico, a deposit of sodium car- 
bonate has been discovered 2 miles inland from Adair Bay, an inden- 
tation from the Gulf of California, 100 miles south of the mouth of 
the Colorado River. The deposit is said to cover an area of about 70 



192 MEXICO. 

acres, in the center of which are several flowing springs, the water 
being strongl}^ impregnated with the salts. This water has spread over 
the surrounding area, and evaporation has formed a crust of the crys 
tallized salts of from 1 to 3 feet in thickness, beneath which is 12 or 
18 inches of water. As this crust is excavated and taken away the 
water from below quickly fills its place, and very shortly, by evapo- 
ration, the crust is completely renewed, making the deposit practically 
inexaustible. Sodium carbonate is used in the manufacture of acids, 
glass, bicarbonate of soda, etc. , and there is a steady demand for it 
for these purposes. 

It is also stated that several deposits of tin have been discovered in 
Mexico, principally in the States of Guanajuato, San Luis Potosi, and 
Sonora. The heights of the Sierra de la Estanera, in the mining dis- 
trict of Comanja (State of San Luis Potosi), contain tin ore which 
assays from 70 to 75 per cent of metal. In the State of Durango also 
tin is met with in considerable quantities, which, if properly treated, 
would yield from 35 to 75 per cent of metal, often in the form of 
oxides. 

There are five processes for the reduction of ore at present in use in 
Mexico — the patio, tonel, lixiviation, y^e^o, and^a^. 

The joatio process, invented, as before stated, by Bartolome de 
Medina, consists of amalgamation with quicksilver. This system of 
treating ore is as follows: 

The ore is brought from the mine in large pieces and carried to a 
covered box, where it is pounded to pieces by immense wooden crush- 
ers, provided at the end with heavy iron pestles, and working on arms 
connected with an axle, operated by horsepower. The iron pestles 
reduce the ore to pieces, which fall upon a sieve made of hide, the 
smaller fragments passing through it while the larger are placed back 
in the box to be crushed again. There are generally several of these 
crushers in a straight line, working alternately. After the ore has 
been crushed in the mortars {morteros) it passes to the mill {tahones), 
which consists of a round vat placed on a level with the floor. Here 
the ore is ground up into fine dust by means of three heavy and hard 
granite stones, oblong in shape and connected with a revolving shaft 
operated by horsepower. 

By the gradual addition of water during this process of pulverization 
a mudd}^ mass is formed, which at the proper time is thrown out into 
the, patio (yard), which has a floor made of hard cement or stone, where 
the mud is treated by the addition of quicksilver and strong brine, 
called caldo. It is thus left in the open air, exposed to the heat of the 
sun, for some twenty or thirty days, being stirred every day by men 
and horses tramping over it until the quicksilver and the salt are well 
incorporated to the ore. This substance is called torta de lama (cake 
of mud), and when the process of mixing is completed the mud is 



MEXICO. 193 

carried to the lavadero (washing place) and placed in vats where it is 
washed, leaving in the vats what is called plata pina (amalgamated 
silver), containing quicksilver. This amalgam is then placed into 
stout canvas bags and submitted to a heavy pressure to extract the 
mercury, and when this operation is completed it is placed in the oven, 
where the silver is purified. 

An additional process connected with this system in the reduction of 
certain kinds of ores is employed after the mineral has been exposed 
to the sun in tho, patio ^ or yard, when it is transferred to the planillo^ 
which is an inclined plane in the open air, having a solid stone floor 
some 60 feet long and 20 feet wide. The workmen are engaged all 
along this inclined plane in throwing small quantities of water on the 
lama., so that the mud runs off to a ditch while the silver remains at 
the foot of the plane. This method requires skill, as the water must 
be added gradually. The silver and the remaining muddy mass is 
carried to a large iron boiler where it is heated and stirred until the 
evaporation of the liquid is accomplished. At the proper stage of this 
operation the remaining substance is taken to the amalgamating room 
where the quicksilver is added, which unites with the silver. The mass 
resulting is then washed again, only the amalgam of silver and mer- 
cury remaining, which is further purified in a furnace and the silver 
run into molds. 

In the method of lixiviation, which is adopted in several of the States, 
the rock is crushed dry and passed through screens of twenty to thirty 
meshes to the inch. It is then roasted in reverberatory furnaces with 
salt. The roasted ore is then subjected to the water process, being 
kept in large tanks or tubs, constantly covered and run over by clear 
water during a number of hours, after which the water is drawn off 
and a cold solution of hyposulphate of soda is made to pass through 
the ore until it is ascertained that the solution carries no more silver. 
The silver carried by the hyposulphate solution is precipitated by the 
addition to that solution of another solution of quicklime and sulphur, 
known as calcium sulphide, which is made by boiling lime and sulphur. 
After the precipitation and the running off of the precipitating liquid 
the silver appears as a sulphide, is put into canvas filters, dried, roasted 
in reverberatory furnaces to carry off the sulphur, and then melted into 
bars. If the operation is carefully performed the bullion resulting 
will be from 900 to 1,000 fine. The solution is pumped back into the 
tanks to be used again. 

There are several kinds of silver ore taken from the mines. Some 
of the principal varieties are plata hlanca (white silver), which is the 
rarest and best; plata verde (green silver), united with copper; hronces 
(bronzes), united with iron; plomosos (lead), united with lead, a very 
soft ore; caliches (chalk), united with a chalk}'^ substance very greatly 
resembling the common white limestone, but which is rich in silver 
65lA 13 



194 MEXICO. 

and easil}^ worked. Previous to the passage of the tariff bill of 1890, 
generally known as the McKinle}^ bill, and the succeeding tariff' bills, 
silver-bearing lead ore was brought from Mexico to the United States 
for reduction. These bills put a heavy duty on such ores, and have 
caused companies to form in the latter countr}^ to establish smelting 
works in different parts of Mexico. Millions of dollars have been 
invested by American capitalists in this industry. 

Wages for miners range all the way from 3Ti cents to $1.50 per 
day, the workmen being mostly peones (day laborers). Superintend- 
ents, ore treaters, etc., are generally Americans, Swedes, or Germans. 

Mexican geologists affirmed for many years that no mineral coal 
existed in their country. About the year 1881, however, reports from 
several parts of the country claimed that anthracite coal had been dis- 
covered, and man}^ specimens of what was supposed to be this mineral 
were sent to the National College of Engineers to be assaj^ed. Much 
enthusiasm was aroused by these reports, and the Department of Pro- 
motion appointed scientific commissions to visit the alleged coal locali- 
ties and report thereon. The labors of these commissions proved that 
coal did exist assaying from 41 to 92 per cent, the latter in the State 
of Sonora. It was to this coal that General Rosecrans gave the name 
of black gold. The commissions discovered and reported on anthra- 
cite deposits in Sonora, Michoacan, Veracruz, Guerrero, Oaxaca, 
Puebla, and other States. 

The excitement and enthusiasm thus created led to the formation of 
many coal companies, and many persons looked forward to the amass- 
ing of fortunes out of collieries, bvit the results were not great. This 
enthusiasm was succeeded by a state of depression and inactivity by 
the discovery that the seams of coal brought to light were poor, and 
that the reports and rumors were exaggerated. Want of means of 
communication between the deposits and the markets also had much to 
do with the quiescent state. The depression continued until profitable 
coal deposits were unearthed in Coahuila, and were purchased by C. 
P. Huntington. These deposits occur, geologically^ speaking, in the 
cretaceous formation, and are divided into two beds, the Upper and the 
Lower. The product of these fields has been used to supply coke for 
the use of smelters in several Mexican States, and some coal has been 
shipped to the United States through the port of Piedras Negras. 
Throughout this region the coal measures are considerably disturbed 
by faults and foldings, and the seams are irregular in width, having 
many barren areas between them. 

Along the Gulf of California, extending north to the Arizona line, 
in the State of Sonora, coal was found and used by local silver smelters 
as early as the year 1870. In 1890 an English company secured a 
concession of 4,000,000 acres of land in this belt. Through failure to 
carry out the terms of the concession it was forfeited, and a Mexican 



MEXICO. 195 

company was org-anized to carry on the proposed work, but has done 
little of importance. 

The coal is anthracite and semianthracite, containing from 8 to 15 
per cent ash and sulphur, according to reported analyses. 

Up to 1890 some 59 coal mines had been opened up in the State of 
Puebla, but poor facilities for transportation, difficulties encountered 
in mining, and the rather poor quality of the coal conspired to prevent 
great activity being shown, despite the desire of the State government 
to foster and advance the industry. 

It is reported that during- the fall of 1897 fairly good coal fields had 
been discovered near Colombia, State of Nuevo Leon, and that they 
were to be worked, a concession having been already requested to build 
a short railwa}^ line to the fields. 

According to Mexican official publications there are in the State of 
Oa-xaca several known deposits of coal, which is also to be found in the 
States of Veracruz, Puebla, Hidalgo, Michoacan, Tlaxcala, Sonora, 
Tamaulipas, Chihuahua, Morelos, Queretaro, Jalisco, and Coahuila. 
Peat is found in Sonora, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Puebla, and elsewhere. 
It abounds on the banks of the Tololotlan River near Lake Chapala, 
and in the valley of Mexico. Lignite, or brown coal, is found in 
Puebla, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, Hidalgo, Chihuahua, Guerrero, Morelos, 
Queretaro, Jalisco, and Coahuila. 

The territory of Mexico abounds in deposits of asphaltum and liquid 
petroleum. These deposits have not been, until recentlj^, worked to 
any great extent. 

The entire Atlantic coast of the country shows traces of oil and 
asphaltum, which there goes by the name of chapapote. In the north- 
ern part of the Republic, between the foothills and the coast, there 
exist springs and deposits of the substances named. 

The deposits of asphaltum in the vicinity of Tuxpam and Tampico 
are excellent in quality, and from them the merchants of the coast have 
shipped, at various times, small quantities to the United States and 
Europe. This asphalt may be easily broken into blocks and floated 
down the river to the seacoast, where it may be collected and laden on 
ships. At Huasteca and on Lake Chapala, as well as on the Cham- 
pay an Lagoon in Tamaulipas, asphalt is to be found. 

Crude petroleum springs running freely are to be found on the banks 
of several rivers, the oil flowing into these and covering their surface 
for some distance. Samples of this oil have been assayed in Pennsyl- 
vania, and are reported to be of a quality equal to the crude product 
of that State. Late in 1896 the United States consul at Matamoros 
reported to the Department of State ^ the discovery, about 300 miles 
from his post, of "the richest asphalt field known," where there were 



^ United States Consular Reports, Vol. LII, p. 619. 



196 MEXICO. 

"about 20 wells which have a continuous flow of mineral tar, as the 
analj^sis (made at the Universit}^ of Texas) call it. The ground for 
over 20 miles square is covered with asphalt deposits. The nearby 
streams have the whole year round a fatty, oih^ substance flowing into 
them from the surrounding mountains, making the water unfit to drink. 
From all indications there must be a large deposit of petroleum and 
coal under this asphalt field." 

Mineral oils and petroleum have been found in many other localities, 
principally in the Villa de Guadalupe Hidalgo, Lake Chapala, Puerto 
Angel, and Pochutla, in the State of Oaxaca; in Otzumatlan, Michoa- 
can, and in several other places. 

Under date of June 15, 1898, a concession was granted to a London 
firm, by the Mexican Government, for the establishment of the indus 
try of petroleum extraction, according to the provisions of which the 
said grant was to hold for a period of ten years. 

The mining law now in force in Mexico was promulgated on June 4, 
1892. Its leading provisions are as follows: 

A concession is required for working the mineral substances here 
enumerated: Gold, platinum, silver, quicksilver, iron (except marsh 
ores, loose surface ores, and others worked as coloring matter), lead, 
copper, tin (except float tin), zinc, antimony, nickel, cobalt, manganese, 
bismuth, and arsenic, either in their native state or mineralized. Also 
precious stones, rock salt, and sulphur. 

Combustible minerals, mineral oils and waters, rocks on the land, 
either separately or as building or ornamental material; earths, sand, 
and clays of all kinds, and mineral substances not elsewhere specified 
may be freely worked by the owner of the ground where they exist 
without a special concession in any case. Surface or subterranean 
excavations that the working of any of these substances may require 
are subject to the regulations relating to the order and safety of mines. 

Payment of the Federal property tax, prescribed by the law relating 
thereto, will convey the fee title to all mining property legally acquired 
under this law. Mining property, except in the case of placers or 
surface deposits, is understood to refer solely to the underground work 
and not to the surface, which remains under the jurisdiction of its owner, 
save such parts thereof as may be needed by the miner, relating to 
which the law makes sundry provisions. 

A mine can not be worked beyond its prescribed boundaries, save 
when the adjacent ground is unoccupied, and then only conformably 
to the regulations and after petitioning for an enlargement of the con- 
cession. In order to occupy another's land his permission is indispen- 
sably necessary, except in the case of easements. 

Water brought to the surface by reason of underground work shall 
belong to the mine owner; but the general provisions of law must be 
observed with respect to the rights of the owners of the land over which 
th^ same may flow. 



MEXICO. 197 

Mining- operations being deemed of public utility, in case of failure 
to agree, condemnation proceedings may be resorted to for the acquire- 
ment of the necessary ground. 

Should efforts on the part of mine concessionaires to make arrange- 
ments with landowners looking to the occupancy of the necessary 
portion of ground to conduct the working of placers or surface 
deposits or to construct buildings and other mine appurtenances fail, 
condemnation proceedings must be instituted before the local court of 
the first instance, where the proceedings shall be as follows: 

Each party shall name an appraiser, who shall, within eight days, 
reckoned from the date of appointment, present his respective report. 
In case of disagreement, the court shall appoint an umpire, who shall 
also file his report within eight days after his appointment. Within 
the next ensuing eight days the court, after considering the opinions 
of the appraisers and the evidence submitted by the parties, shall deter- 
mine the extent of ground to be occupied and the amount of indemnity 
to be paid. From this decision no appeal lies. 

Should the owner of the land fail to name his appraiser within eight 
days after notice from the court, the latter shall, on its own motion 
appoint one to represent the owner's interests. 

Should the ownership of the property to be occupied be uncertain 
or doubtful, the court shall set as the amount of indemnity such sum 
as may be agreed upon b}" the appraiser appointed by the grantee of 
the mine and the one designated by the court to represent the legal 
owner, the sum being deposited to be delivered to the part}'- entitled 
thereto. 

The appraisers shall base their valuations upon the value of the land, 
the injuries immediately accruing to it, and the easements attachable 
thereto. 

Mining properties and adjoining lands shall enjoy and suffer, as the 
case may be, the easements of way, water rights, drainage, and venti- 
lation, the courts being guided in the matter of adjudication and indem- 
nity by the lex loci^ where the same does not conflict with the rules 
which are laid down in this law. 

Every inhabitant of the Republic may freely explore the national 
territory for the purpose of discovering mineral deposits, but should 
excavations be made in lieu of borings, the former shall not exceed 10 
meters in length or depth. No permit is necessary, but previous notice 
must be given to the proper authoritj^. 

No prospecting may be done on private property without leave of 
the owner or his representative. In case permission is not obtainable, 
it may be asked of the proper executive officer, who may grant the 
same pursuant to the regulations, bond being previously furnished by 
the prospector to answer for all damages, such bond to be to the satis- 
faction of the officer after hearing the owner of the land or his repre- 
sentative. 



198 MEXICO. 

No prospecting nia}'^ be carried on within private buildings or their 
appurtenances except by leave of the owner; neither shall mining 
explorations be conducted within the limits of towns or cities, nor 
within or in the neighborhood of public Imildings and fortifications. 

The unit of concession, or mining claim, shall hereafter consist of a 
prismatic body of indefinite depth, forming on the surface a horizontal 
square having sides 100 meters in length, and bounded below the sur- 
face by the four corresponding vertical planes. 

The mining claim is indivisible in all contracts affecting mining 
grants or ownership thereof. 

Unless the original prospector shall petition therefor within three 
months, mining grants shall be made to the first applicant and shall 
embrace, wherever there is sufficient unoccupied ground, the number 
of claims petitioned by the interested party, who should always 
clearl}^ specify, in accordance with the regulations, the actual location 
of the claims constituting his grant. 

Should a space less than the unit of concession lie between the newly 
granted claims and others previously conveyed, such space shall also 
be granted in fee to the first applicant. 

Applications for mining grants should be filed with the special agents 
appointed in the States, Territories, and Federal District b}^ the Depart- 
ment of Promotion. These agents are authorized to collect the fees 
prescribed in the department schedule. 

The agents shall receive the applications, immediately recording the 
day and hour of filing. They shall then publish the application, cause 
the claims to be surve3^ed b}^ the engineer or expert by them desig- 
nated, and should no objection be filed, they shall forward a copy of 
the record and plan to the Department of Promotion for approval and 
issuance of the patent. 

The record having been approved and the patent issued, the grantee 
enters at once upon the mining claims without further formality. 

The agents are prohibited from suspending the record in its regular 
course for any reason whatever, except in the event of objection; and 
the periods established b}'^ the regulations having expired, the}^ are 
bound to transmit at once a copy of the record, in whatever stage it 
may be, to the department, so that, after examination, it may dismiss 
the application for want of diligence should it so find, or hold the agent 
responsible should the delay be attributable to him. Negligent appli- 
cants can not twice solicit the sarne grant. 

Should objection to the granting of an application or to the proper 
survej^s be filed by the owner of the land, alleging the nonexistence of 
the deposit, the agent shall dismiss the objection should there be any 
indications of a deposit on the land or any boring or prospecting work 
on said deposit. 

In case no such indications, borings, or works exist, proceedings 



MEXICO. 199 

similar to those hereinbefore mentioned shall be instituted, the court 
deciding whether or not the grant shall be made, his decision being 
appealable in either case. The judgment is to be communicated to the 
Department of Promotion. 

The agents shall suspend proceedings in case an objection is filed, and 
forward the record to the local court of the first instance for the insti- 
tution of the proper judicial inquiry. The court shall make known its 
decision to thr Department of Promotion. 

Working of mineral substances, either conveyable pursuant to this 
law or belonging to the owner of the surface ground, is subject to the 
regulations; but, by observing these, mine owners shall be allowed full 
libertj^ of action to work as may seem best to them, pushing, delaying, 
or suspending for a greater or less time their work, employing therein 
the number of laborers they may see fit and wherever may best serve 
their purpose. Mine owners, however, shall be liable for accidents 
that may occur in the mines due to poor workmanship, and to indem- 
nify the damages occasioned other property through lack of drainage 
or through any other cause aflfecting the interests of others. 

When, in order to push the works of a mine in any locality, drain- 
age tunnels may become necessar}'-, the execution of such works shall 
be the subject of contract between the parties interested. 

Associations or companies formed to operate mines shall be governed 
by the commercial code. 

The contract for advances {de avio), so called, up to this time, shall 
hereafter be considered either as a partnership — in which case it shall 
be governed by the commercial code — or a mortgage. A mining 
mortgage may be freely constituted in accordance with the civil code 
of the Federal District, bearing in mind the indivisibility of the claim 
hereinbefore mentioned, and, as regards recording, observing the pro- 
visions of the commercial code, to which end a special book shall be 
kept for mining operations. The mortgagee shall always have the 
right to pay the Federal tax hereinbefore mentioned, and shall thereby 
acquire a preferred right with respect to the owner of the mine and 
his own mortgage. 

Mortgages may be divided into bonds, assignable or payable to 
bearer, either by the terms of the original mortgage deed or by subse- 
quent instrument. In every case it shall contain provisions constitut- 
ing a common representative of the bondholders. These provisions, 
as well as those relating to the aggregate of the debt, the conditions 
thereof, and of the security, shall be printed in the bonds. 

Bondholders may only proceed against the mortgagor or the mort- 
gaged property through the common representative, whose acts with 
respect to said right shall be binding on all. 

Failure to pay the property tax, pursuant to the provisions of and 
procedure under the law establishing the same, shall be, from and 



200 MEXICO. 

after the date hereof, the sole cause for forfeiture of mining- property, 
which property so forfeited shall be free of all burdens and ma}^ be 
granted to the first applicant. 

All matters relative to the establishment and working of smelting 
and reduction works and assay offices shall be governed by the general 
laws, and in so far as regards taxation by the law of June 6, 1887. 

Parts of tunnels located outside of claims, when intended solely for 
ventilation, drainage, and extraction of metals not taken from the said 
tunnels, are exempted from taxation. 

Denouncements of mines or surplus ground in the course of adjudi- 
cation when this law goes into effect shall be decided in accordance 
therewith. 

Surplus ground and vacant spaces between adjoining or abutting 
mining properties not denounced when this law goes into effect shall 
belong and be granted to the first applicant. 

The law went into effect on the 1st of July, 1892. 

On June 6, 1892, the President promulgated, through the Finance 
Department, a mining-tax law, the principal provisions of which are 
as follows: 

Pursuant to the new mining law, a Federal mining-property tax is 
established. It is dual in its application — one to be paid but once in 
stamps to be affixed to ever}^ title or patent, and the other to be paid 
annually for each claim which a grant covers. Every fraction of a 
claim exceeding the half of a full claim shall pay the same as the 
latter. Smaller fractions are exempt. 

The stamps shall be of the denomination of $10, and are to be 
affixed to the title or patent at the rate of one stamp for every 
claim of 10,000 square meters. Fractions are to be paid for as above. 

Every mine owner or occupant is bound to pay the sum of $10 
per year for every claim composing his grant. 

This annual tax is to be paid quarterly in advance, payment to be 
made during the first month of the quarter, without notice. 

An}^ concealment of the number of claims owned shall be punished 
with a fine in double the amount of the stamps the patent or title 
should bear for the claim concealed; and further, a fine in double the 
amount of the annual tax for the whole if it shall not have been paid, 
without prejudice to civil and criminal liability. 

Default in the payment of the annual tax within the first month of 
the quarter will subject the mine owner to a fine equal to 50 per cent 
of the tax, if paid during the second month. Should payment be 
deferred until the third month the fine shall be equal to the full 
amount of the tax. Upon the expiration of this term without pay- 
ment of the tax and accumulated fines the mine is forfeited without 
appeal. 

Upon the sale of a mine the grantor shall give notice of the same for 
record, and the deed shall have affixed the stamps required by the law. 



MEXICO. 201 

In case any person or company shall find it inadvisable to continue 
the working of a mine or mines, notice must be sent to the proper 
office of the Treasury Department in order to settle the tax up to the 
date of notice and make the necessary entry in the record. 

On July 1, 1897, another mining-tax law went into effect. Its pro- 
visions are as follows: 

Art. 1. Silver and gold are subject, in accordance with the pro- 
visions of this law, to the payment of the following taxes and charges: 

I. Interior stamp tax, at the rate of 3 per cent on the value of said 
metals. 

II. Coinage charges, at the rate of 2 per cent on the value of the 
same metals. 

III. Assaying charges, in conformity with the tariff which the 
Department of the Treasury may publish. 

IV. Charges for smelting, refining, and separating in accordance 
with the respective tariffs which may be published by the same 
Department. 

Art. 2. In order to liquidate the stamp tax and coinage charges, the 
basis for estimating the value of the precious metals shall be the value 
which the monetary laws of the country assign to the said metals, i. e. , 
the kilogram of silver being at present $40,915 and the kilogram of 
gold $675,116. 

Art. 3. The cost of the respective operations will be taken into 
account in connection with the tariff' which clauses III and IV of 
article 1 establish for the collection of the charges. 

Art. 1. Not merely gold and silver in mixed bars, or consisting of 
one of these metals, but also sulphides of silver, argentiferous copper 
and lead, mineral in a natural state, or concentrated, or which may 
have been to a certain extent treated, and generally any other ore or 
substance which contains silver or gold, are subject to the pajanent of 
the taxes and charges established by article 1. 

Art. 6. The stamp tax and coinage and assay charges shall be paid 
in all cases, whether it be that the substance is presented for coinage 
or for exportation. The smelting charge shall only be collected on 
the substances which are not homogeneous and therefore require to be 
smelted in order to effect the assay valuation and liquidation of same; 
and the charges for refining and separating shall onl}^ ^-pply to the 
substances intended for coinage. 

Foreign money is not liable to the burdens imposed hy this law, but 
it shall be subject when introduced to a mint — for purposes of recoin- 
age- — to the payment of the coinage charges, and also in proper cases 
to the charges established in sections III and IV of said article. 

Art. 6. The payment of the respective taxes and charges shall be 
made at the mints or in the special assaying offices, whether the metals 
be introduced for coinage or for the purpose of exportation, and in 



202 MEXICO. 

each case the requisites established by the Regulations must be com- 
plied with. 

The taxpayers who can not prove that they have paid the taxes in 
the establishments mentioned, and who may wish to ship gold or silver, 
or any substance which contains these metals, to a foreign country, 
shall be allowed to make the payment at the custom-houses upon the 
terms and requirements of the said Regulations, 

Art. 7. The paj^ment shall be made in cui-rent money of Mexican 
coinage, but as regards the stamp tax the collecting offices shall affix 
to and cancel on the respective documents which they shall deliver to 
the taxpayers the corresponding stamp for the amount of said tax. 
These documents shall be made out in the form which the regulations 
shall provide, specifying the value of the metal and the amount of the 
tax and charges. 

Art. 8. When the minerals destined for a foreign country come 
from any State in which they have been taxed in conformity with the 
law of the 6th June, 1887, the coinage charges and stamp tax may be 
liquidated, taking as a basis — always provided that the Department 
of the Treasury has so authoj'ized — the value which has been given to 
the minerals in the assaying office or in that of the collector of taxes. 

Art. 9. The metallurgical establishments, which by express stipula- 
tion in force at the date of this law enjoy the privilege, shall continue 
to enjoy the privilege of exemption from the payment of the coinage 
tax upon the silver which they may export direct, provided always 
that the proportion of silver in the argentiferous leads does not exceed 
seven one-thousandths and that of the argentiferous copper twenty 
one-thousandths; but if the proportion of silver exceeds these limits, 
the said establishments shall pay the coinage tax upon the excess. 
This exemption applies only to those products which originally pro- 
ceed from the establishments enjoying the franchise, and not to those 
products purchased from other concerns. 

Art. 10. The coinage and stamp tax on gold, according to the law, 
shall be estimated upon the intrinsic value of the precious metal con- 
tained in the minerals which are exported, with only such exceptions 
as are contained in the following articles. 

Art. 11. The mineral substances which contain less than 250 grams 
of silver or 10 grams of gold per ton are exempted from the payment 
of the tax and charges imposed by this law, the proportion between the 
one and the other limit to be taken into account in case of a combina- 
tion of both metals. 

Art. 12. The mineral substances of gold or of silver which may be 
exported in their natural state, or after mechanical concentration, shall 
be liable to the coinage charge and also the stamp tax upon the gold 
and silver which they contain, 10 per cent being deducted. 

Art. 13. Should the Department of the Treasury see proper it may 



MEXICO. 203 

grant special concessions to the concerns which are in the habit of 
exporting ores in large quantities, provided that such concerns satis- 
factorily^ prove by means of their books and other documents the 
weight and proportion of metal of the ores which they wish to export, 
and that they admit, for this purpose, the unconditional investigation 
of the Treasury agents. This concession may be extended to arrang- 
ing with the exporters for the payment of a fixed sum as remuneration 
of the Government for the cost of the assay and inspection of said 
mineral substances; but in no case shall it allow of an exemption from 
or rebate on the stamp tax and coinage charges established by this law. 

Art. 14. The Regulations shall fix the penalties which violators of 
this law shall incur and the mode of making the same effective, placing 
clandestine exportation on a level with contraband,- and punishing it 
with the penalties which for this offense are imposed by the general 
custom-house ordinances and other relative laws. 

Art. 15. The producers of silver which contains gold are at liberty 
to separate the same in their own private establishments; and in case 
that they introduce silver mixed (with other metal) to any Federal 
Government office, they shall have the right to separate the gold to 
the extent that they may desire, paying the respective tax or charge 
per kilogram, in accordance with the tariff. If the producers do not 
fix the extent, the separation shall be made on their account, when the 
proportion of gold is equal to or greater than two one-thousandths. 

Art. 1 6. The rates fixed in the general stamp law for the ' ' accounts " 
issued by the mints and for the "metals of gold and silver" are 
repealed; the laws and provisions at present existing with reference to 
the Federal taxes and charges on gold and silver are also repealed. 

The States can continue collecting the local taxes authorized by the 
law of the 6th June, 1887, which shall be liable to the Federal contri- 
bution mentioned in the stamp law. 



CHAPTER X. 

INDTJSTRIES AND MANUFACTURES. 

Mexico is not a manufacturing country. Such articles as the mass 
of the people require are, however, generally produced in sufficient 
quantities to meet the demand. She is, since the great depreciation 
of silver, beginning to learn that it is cheaper to make than to buy, 
and within the past three or four years very large amounts of capital 
have been invested in manufactories and industries. Mexico will 
hardly become, for very many years at least, a manufacturer of articles 
bej^ond those of which she produces the raw materials; but this would 
furnish a field for the investment of almost limitless capital, for hardly 
any nation on earth furnishes raw materials in so great abundance. 
Manufactures will spring up with the increased production of raw 
materials, but the country's agricultural resources are so great it is 
destined to become, still more than at present, a great exporter of raw 
material. The natural products of the soil are so varied, so certain, 
and so sure of good markets, that capital is diverted to agricultural 
and mineral development rather than into manufacturing enterprises 
on a large scale. 

The Indian, who forms the greater part of the laboring population, 
is not progressive. He is loth to lay aside the rude implements of his 
forefathers and take up methods of modern invention and advance- 
ment. His needs are few, and he is not inspired with a desire to 
improve his condition. Having inherited nothing but tradition and 
the meager physical means to provide for his sustenance, he zealously 
guards the one and utilizes the other to the same extent as his forbears, 
leaving his children only what he himself received. The three cen- 
turies of Spanish domination have left their imprint upon his char- 
acter, and everj^thing he does is executed in a perfunctory manner. 
He goes to his daily toil early and returns to his frugal meal and rest 
late. Ambition within him is dead. He is satisfied with his lot and 
cares little what the morrow may bring forth. But the Indian is 
losing ground. The white races are surpassing him, and with increas- 
ing transportation facilities, a progressive Government fostering 
industrial interests, the disappearance of internecine strife, the influx 
of foreign capital and enterprising men, his successors will, in the not 
very distant future, either join the ranks of the progressive people, as 

204 



MEXICO. 205 

in the thickly populated portions of the Republic they have already 
begun to do, or die off to be replaced by a more energetic and 
ambitious class. 

Time was when Mexico was regarded by natives and foreigners as a 
land of mineral wealth only, and her many other natural resources 
were but little noticed or developed. The building of great railway 
systems, affording better means of communication, has, however, 
brought to the notice of the world at large the great possibilities for 
wealth earning which the country affords. 

Brantz Mayer, ^ writing of Mexico and a portion of the territory of 
that country which but a few years before had been annexed to the 
United States, said: 

" Calif ornia has, at least, illustrated one great moral truth which 
the avaricious world required to be taught. When men were starv- 
ing, though weighed down with gold — when all the necessaries of life 
rose to twice, thrice, tenfold, and even fifty or a hundred times their 
value in the Atlantic States — that distant province demonstrated the 
intrinsic worthlessness of the coveted ore and the permanent value of 
everything produced by genuine industry and labor." 

Spurred on to a recognition of this truth by exchange, which has 
acted as a protective tariff, the country, which knew practically 
nothing but mines, began, a few years since, to manufacture, and 
to-day the whistle of the mill and the sound of the hammer are begin- 
ning to be heard throughout the land. Many articles which five or 
six years ago brought the Government millions in duties are now not 
imported, the people having gone into the manufacture of these 
articles, which thus produce i-evenue to the Government through 
other channels at the same time that they add to the wealth of the 
people. 

The principal manufacturing industry of the Republic is the mak- 
ing of cotton cloth, mostly nicmta^ a coarse, unbleached cotton fabric. 
It has been estimated that the mills of the country consume annually 
26,000,000 pounds of cotton, quite a large portion of which is 
imported from the United States, it being stated that the value of 
the unmanufactured article so imported is $2,000,000 a year. The 
industry gives work and support in the field and mills to more than 
50,000 families. As a rule the mills are provided with old-style 
machinery, but recently a number of them have set up American and 
English machinery of modern type. The ordinary cotton cloth {mcmta)^ 
which is about the only material for clothing used by two-thirds of the 
inhabitants of the country, is usually made up in pieces of 30 yards 
4 inches in length by 34.12 inches in width. The price of the piece 
varies from $2.88 to $4. 

^Mexico, Aztec, Spanish, and Republican, 1852. 



206 



MEXICO. 



In the year 1896-96 there were in the country 101 cotton and print 
mills. The following table gives their location, number, number of 
spindles, looms, stamping machines, and operatives: 



Location. 



Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Coahnihv 

CoHma 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Michoaciin 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

San Luis Potosi . 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tlaxeala 

Veracruz 

Tepic 

Federal District 



Number of 
mills. 



Number of 
spindles. 



1,240 

2,100 

28, 778 

2,824 

14, 612 

10, 500 

3,318 

4,968 

22, 281 

28, 856 

11,200 

11, 176 

18, 744 

49,964 

25,232 

4,640 

4,752 

1,874 

23, 300 

82, 493 

11,448 

66, 068 



Number of 
looms. 



54 
108 
863 
64 
561 
448 
130 
190 
464 
964 
286 
285 
542 

1,695 
692 
138 
209 
64 
678 

2,382 
337 

1,870 



Number of 
stamping 
machines. 



Number of 
operatives. 



70 
132 

1,347 
218 
806 
825 
149 
323 
940 

1,710 
425 
453 
775 

2,199 

1,109 

266 

383 

• 120 

1,025 

3,003 
550 

2,943 



In the last six months of the above year there were consumed 
11,885,613 kilograms of cotton; there were manufactured 1:,561,386 
pieces of cotton cloth and prints; there were also produced 1,007,558 
kilograms of yarn. The sales during the same period amounted to 
$11,828,766.69, Mexican currency. 

In the year 1897 the number of mills had increased to 111, and 
in 1898-99, according to an official report of the taxes paid b}^ cotton 
and woolen goods, there were 125 mills, with 491,443 spindles and 
14,759 looms, employing 23,731 hands. From July 1, 1898, to June 
30, 1899, the consumption of these mills was represented by 26,518,059 
kilograms of cotton, their production being 10,239,799 pieces of 
goods and 1,896,042 kilograms of yarn, with a total valuation of 
$29,753,414, Mexican silver. This seems to be one of the most flour- 
ishing industries of the Republic, some of the mills paying annual 
dividends of 40 per cent on the investment. 

Besides the cotton cloth and prints, a considerable amount of cotton 
yarn is used in the manufacture of 7'ehozos (an article serving as a 
shawl and scarf for women), blankets, and coarse napkins. The best 
rebozos are made in the town of Tenancingo. The articles named are 
also manufactured of silk and linen. There are in the City of Mexico 
several factories devoted to the manufacture, by hand, of zarapes^ 
rebozos^ manias, and other cotton stuffs. 

The manufacture of knit goods, such as hosiery, underwear, etc., 
has increased considerably, and has resulted in making a very notice- 
able reduction in the amount of im.ported goods of this character. 
The cloth made is of a fair quality, and sells at from $1.62 to $2.62 
per vara; ^ carpets bring from $1 to $1.30 per vara. 



^A vara is 34.12 inches, 



MEXICO. 207 

As demonstrative of the profits to be made in the manufacture of 
cotton textiles, it has been stated upon good authority that one of the 
large corporations in Orizaba paid its shareholders in the year 1896 
16 per cent. In the Federal District another company divided, during 
the same year, among its shareholders a profit of 15 per cent. The 
thread factories and cotton goods manufactories owned by individuals 
are said to make annually betwen 30 and 40 per cent on their capital. 

According to later official reports there are now in the country 130 
cotton mills, whose estimated payments to the National Treasury in 
the form of stamp taxes for the first half of the fiscal year 1899-1900 
are given at $849,911, Mexican silver. Among the additions to this 
industry is the reported establishment in the district of Atlixco of a 
thread and cotton mill; also one at Orizaba, whi(}h is the second largest 
in the Republic, fitted with electric lighting appliances and having a 
capacity of 150 bolts a day. In Leon, the capital of Guanajuato, 
there are 500 looms now in operation, and the "Industrial Company" 
has erected mills both at Veracruz and Orizaba. 

Mexican industry also produces woolen blankets and blankets of a 
mixture of wool and cotton, cassimeres, which, although they have 
not the body and fineness of texture of those of European manufac- 
ture, have, on the other hand, great resistance, and are cheap. The 
zarape^ constitute, perhaps, the most profitable industry. These mul- 
ticolored woolen cloaks or blankets are well made, those of Saltillo 
and San Miguel being celebrated for their fine texture, brilliant 
colors, good finish, and excellent wearing qualities. They have 
achieved considerable fame abroad, and some grades have been sold 
for more than $100 each. 

The principal woolen mills are in Aguascalientes, Durango, Guana- 
juato, Hidalgo, and Puebla. San Luis Potosi, Zacatecas, Mexico, and 
Nuevo Leon also have woolen mills which produce a fair quality of 
goods. 

It is not generally known that wool spinning has been going on in 
Mexico for more than three centuries, yet such is the well-authenticated 
fact. In the year 1541 the first viceroy introduced Merino sheep into 
the country and established manufactories of woolen cloth. 

Silk weaving can hardly be said to be a great industry at present, 
but it is increasing rapidly. Silk was cultivated and sold in the 
markets of Mexico as far back as the time of Charles V, Cortes 
speaking of the fact in his letters to that monarch, and there are still 
preserved pictures done by the ancient Mexicans upon a paper made 
of silk. The culture of the silkworm and weaving of its product 
were prohibited by the Spanish Crown in its American possessions 
during the vice-regal administrations as stated elsewhere. The indus- 
try gradually died out, and it is only of late years that it has been 
revived. 



208 MEXICO. 

The climate of Mexico is unexcelled by any in the world for the 
raising and developing of cocoons. The silkworms at the present 
time are mostly raised in Oaxaca, in the State of the same name 
Tetela, in the State of Puebla; Ixmiquiltam, in Hidalgo, and in the 
States of Jalisco, Oaxaca, Tlaxcala, Michoacan, Queretaro, Veracruz, 
Chihuahua, and Zacatecas. The white and black mulberry leaves 
grow well in these States and in the Federal District. In 1886 there 
were four silk factories which could be considered to be fairly well 
equipped. The}^ had plants of machinery imported from France, and, 
although small, were in the hands of enterprising men, and it was 
thought at the time that these factories and others, which it was said 
would be established, would manufacture more silk than could be con- 
sumed by the people of Mexico. Statistics do not show that the out- 
come of this undertaking has been as successful as was expected. 
Although several of the State governments in the year 1886, prior to 
that time, and since then, offered inducements to those persons who 
should devote themselves to the growing of mulberry trees and the 
establishment of silk factories, success does not seem to have attended 
any of the efforts in this line. There is now one silk factory in the 
City of Mexico, which is pronounced to be producing a very fair 
grade of goods. 

There is a colony devoted to the raising of silkworms. 

A silk grower of San Luis Potosi has imported 600,000 mulberry 
trees from France, and in order to encourage the silk industry the 
trees were permitted to enter free. 

Considering the great quantity and variety of fibrous plants and 
other material for paper making with which Mexico is endowed, and 
that this industry has been protected for many years by the tariff, it 
seems strange that throughout the entire territory there are only a few 
paper mills, which manufacture comparatively little writing paper, but 
a considerable quantity of wrapping and printing paper, envelopes, 
etc. The oldest mill is that at Cocolapan, in Orizaba, which produces 
a straw and printing paper of a low grade. 

Under date of June 3, 1899, the legislature of the State of Mexico 
granted the joint stock company known as "El Progreso Industrial," 
engaged in the manufacture of paper from the "maguey " fiber, exemp- 
tion from all State taxes and contributions for the term of ten years. 
The company's mills are situated in the districts of Tlalnepantla and 
Cuautitlan. About 1,600 men were engaged in erecting the buildings. 
The engines will be moved by hydraulic power of 1,500 horsepower. 
The mills will be able to produce in large quantities all kinds of paper, 
especially those of superior quality. 

Save in the State of Morelos and some districts in the States of 
Puebla, Veracruz, Michoacan, and Jalisco, and the Territory of Lower 
California, the sugar industry is very backward. In most of the sugar 



MEXICO. 209 

mills the juice of the cane is extracted by wooden cylinders, and boiled 
down to the necessary consistency to form small tablets or cakes 
(called panelas or pilmicillos) of a dark brown saccharine substance 
called panocha. Except in rare cases, the use of steam and modern 
machinery is unknown. That this is a profitable industry is shown by 
the fact that the sugar mills of Tenango, Santa Clara, and San Ignacio, 
in the State of Morelos, paid back to their owners the total of their 
investment within four years. 

Distilleries are to be found all over the country, yet very few of 
them have modern plants. These distilleries are chiefly engaged in 
distilling the liquor mescal^ which has been described in another part 
of this book. Another liquor made in Mexico is distilled from the 
sugar cane and is called agua/rdiente (burning water). It is one of the 
strongest liquors known. 

A very fair native wine and brandy are made of the grapes, but this 
industry is not a prominent one and does not supply the home demand. 

Beer and pale ale of an excellent quality are produced. 

OflElcial figures for 1898-99 show that there were then in the country 
2,211 establishments devoted to the manufacture of spirits, from sugar 
cane, maguey, grapes, grains, etc., which produced during that year 
39,311,731 liters of spirits, the principal production being from the 
sugar cane, 27,219,239 liters; from the maguey, 8,644,979 liters, and 
2,299,242 liters of grain spirits. The number of stills in use amounted 
to 2,638, with a capacity of 1,245,825 liters. 

The tobacco-utilizing industry is extensive, nearly every town and 
hamlet having its cigarette factory. The largest manufactories of 
cigars and cigarettes are in the Federal District, Puebla, and Veracruz. 
Cigarettes are very cheap, 700 to 800 selling for a dollar. Good 
brands of cigars may be purchased at from $35 to $80 per thousand, 
Mexican currency. This industry is a profitable one, as it has been 
stated that a cigarette manufacturing company started operations the 
1st of January, 1894, with a nominal capital of $1,000,000, introduc- 
ing the most perfect methods for the manufacture of that product. 
The first year the company paid dividends of 14 per cent, in the sec- 
ond 15 per cent, and 17 per cent in the year 1896. This result is the 
more notable, inasmuch as the company at the time of its formation 
into a corporation had placed its capital at double the value of that 
which the business really represented. 

The quantity of tobacco manufactured in the country in 1898-99 
amounted to 5,546,677 kilograms. 

Although there are many flour mills in the country they do not by 
any means supply the local demand. Nearly all these are supplied 
with millstones from France, and the machinery in the majority of 
them is not up to the standard. There are over 60 good merchant 
mills in Mexico, ranging in flour-making capacity from 40 to 250 bar- 
65lA 14 



210 MEXICO. 

rels a day. At least 150 smaller and crude establishments are scattered 
throughout the Republic. None of these mills, however, can be said 
to be properly equipped, all being in need of wheat washing and scour- 
ing plants. 

Iron foundries are numerous, the excellent qualitj?- of the Mexican 
minerals and their abundance making it possible for them to turn out 
good work. In most of these foundries the work is limited to the 
manufacture of smaller agricultural implements and ordinar}^ market- 
able iron, although some large pieces have been manufactured in the 
way of sugar-making machinery and other heavy work. There is little 
doubt that at no very distant day this industry will be exploited to a 
much larger extent than it is at present. The Government maintains 
a large arsenal and gun foundry in the City of Mexico, where arms and 
munitions of war have been produced which speak highly for the 
skill and dexterity of the operatives in the establishment. There is 
also a large type foundry located in the same city, which turns out 
excellent work. 

Figuring among the prominent industries of the Republic is ham- 
mock making. This is principally carried on in the State of Yucatan, 
where hammocks have been articles of use and barter from time imme- 
morial, which fact has been demonstrated by the discover}^ in buried 
cities of hammock beams and hooks. Yucatan exports more ham- 
mocks than any other province in the world. These articles are made 
from the fiber of the henequen, and are woven entirely by hand, with 
the aid of a very few primitive instruments. All that is necessary to 
make a hammock is a couple of straight poles and shuttles, a thin slat 
of zapoli wood, and a pile of henequen leaves. With these articles at 
hand a Yucatan native is prepared to accept contracts for hammocks 
by the piece, dozen, or hundred. The great hammock-making district, 
whence comes the best make and which produces more than all the 
other districts combined, is Texcoco. Almost the entire exportation 
of these articles is consumed by the New York market. The Indian 
women are those principally engaged in the industr3^ 

Pottery is classed as a third-rate manufacture of the country. It is 
carried on everywhere. The cities of Guadalajara, Zacatecas, Guana- 
juato, and Puebla may be said to be the centers of the industry. The 
pottery and crockery of the various localities or districts where man- 
ufactured has its peculiar distinctive features of quality, design, and 
color. 

The Guadalajara ware is gray, as a rule soft baked, polished, and 
often very elaborately decorated in colors, gold and silver. The 
Zacatecas ware is red, hard baked, glazed, and decorated rudely with 
splashes of underglaze color. The Guanajuato article is in dark 
brown or dark green, with ornamentation of figures, and with a soft, 
rich glaze. In Puebla a coarse porcelain with a thick tin glaze is 



MEXICO, 211 

manufactured. Very fine glazed tiles, multiformed and vari-colored, 
are made in this city, specimens of these ornamenting the exterior 
and interior of the churches, which abound in the city named and 
other cities and towns of this historic State, In some parts of the 
Republic a curious iridescent ware is made which has a copper glaze. 

The crockery for table use is generally heavy and in white and blue. 
In many places the Indians are adepts in the manufacture of earthen- 
ware, and the Mexicans generally are skillful in the making of wax, 
clay, and rag figures, which is one of their profitable industries. In 
Guadalajara, the capital of Jalisco, and Tepic, in the territory of 
that name, vast numbers of clay images, well molded and painted, are 
made. Foreigners are amazed at the perfect accuracy displayed by 
the humble artists in reproducing costumes and portraits from life or 
photographs. The rapidity with which the modelers perform their 
task is wonderful. Some of the clay and wax work manufactured by 
the deft fingers of the natives has been deemed worthy to rank with 
works of sculpture. The specimens of Mexican handiwork in wax 
which adorn the numerous churches do the artists great honor. No 
city in the Republic of any pretension is without the vender of rag, 
baked clay, and wax images, crying his wares. 

Ever since Cortes placed his foot upon the soil of the New World 
pearl fishing has been carried on in the Gulf of California, which, in 
the early days, bore his name. The industry was pursued for many 
years in a desultory way, the only persons engaged in it being a few 
Indians, who dived for the shells without having apparatus or modern 
appliances for diving. The Government has granted an English com- 
pany a concession which is practically a monopoly of the pearl fishing 
in the Gulf of California. This company has provided its divers with 
all the modern appliances, thus enabling them to reach greater depths 
than were possible under the old system. 

In 1896 the value of the pearls collected in Lower California was 
only $300. Besides this, however, there were exported 5,000 tons of 
pearl shell, valued at $1,250,000. The headquarters of the natives 
engaged in this industry is La Paz, a small town of 2,000 inhabitants 
and one of the capitals of the territory named. The business is, of 
course, one depending considerably upon chance, but the natives are 
very fond of it. The large majority of the shells contain no pearl and 
are what is known as seed pearls. The largest pearl ever found in the 
waters of the gulf was about three-fourths of an inch in diameter and 
was sold in Paris to the Emperor of Austria for the sum of $10,000. 
A number of black pearls have been found in these waters, and they 
bring verj^ high prices. 

Sponges, mother-of-pearl, abalone, and other shells are found here 
and constitute, together with tortoise fishing, a considerable industry. 
The Government has been anxious for some years to develop these 



212 MEXICO. 

marine branches of industry and production, and will make liberal 
concessions to companies desirous of engaging in them. In compar- 
ison to the returns, the capital necessary to exploit them is small. 

The exportations of pearl shell for the year 1896-97 were 80,254 
kilograms, valued at $15,447. 

There are a number of cotton-seed oil mills in the Republic, the 
largest being located at Lerdo, Durango. Considerable American 
capital is invested in the enterprise. The mill was established in 1887, 
and has a capital of $1,000,000. Its capacity is 100 tons a day. The 
meal is shipped all over Mexico and to Rotterdam and Hamburg. 
The oil is used in the manufacture of soap, which is another consider- 
able industry. This company has since 1892 sold between 10,000,000 
and 11,000,000 pounds of soap a year. 

Another noteworthy industry is the collecting and exporting of 
hides and skins. Mexico occupies the fourth rank among the nations 
of the earth in this particular branch. 

In the year 1898-99 that country exported hides, skins, and leather 
to the value of $3,646,915, Mexican silver (a gain of $56,438 over the 
previous fiscal j^ear), as follows: 

Hides $1,289,538 

Tanned leather 47,084 

Sheepskins 313 

Goatskins 2,069,549 

Deerskins - 106,297 

Boar skins 5, 435 

AlUgator skins 118, 414 

Other skins -. 10,285 

The kid exported through the Matamoros custom-house is much 
esteemed for the manufacture of strong shoes, its dimensions and 
weight ranking high. This kid brings from 45 to 50 cents per pound. 
The Veracruz goatskins are more sought after and bring 2 cents more 
a pound, while those from Oaxaca are lighter and bring about 39 cents 
per pound. These kids are considered among the best in the world 
for women's and children's shoes. 

Another industry, although not a prominent one, is the killing of 
seals and sea lions on the coast of Lower California, the skins being 
converted into leather. 

Tanneries are to be found at many places, and a very fair leather is 
turned out. Mexicans are artists in leather work, and in the making 
of saddles they excel. Saddles manufactured in the country have sold 
for more than $800, being profusely ornamented with silver and finely 
stamped leather. The center of the leather- working industry is the 
city of Leon. 

Glassware is manufactured to some extent, but not to that warranted 
by the abundance of the raw material suitable to glass making. The 
industry is almost limited to the making of window panes and ordinary 



MEXICO. 213 

bottles and goblets, at prices so high that the poor are almost denied 
their use. 

There are but few manufactories of jewelry and trinkets in the 
country, notwithstanding the Mexican love of display in this line. 
The importations of jewelry and trinkets is made from France, Eng- 
land, and the United States. The silver and gold smiths of the country 
excel in the execution of filigree work, it being sought after in all parts 
of the civilized world. 

The manufacture of acids and chemical compounds, which would 
undoubtedly be a profitable industry, has about thirteen establishments 
devoted to it, and of these not more than five manufacture acids — so 
necessary to the mining industry. Sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric 
acids are manufactured at great profits. 

Another quite prominent industry is the manufacture of chocolate, 
several large factories being devoted to the converting of the cocoa 
bean into this article. The Mexican chocolate when ground with cin- 
namon is highly valued. 

Hardware is also manufactured, there being in the City of Mexico 
and other large centers a number of foundries where are manufactured 
a considerable amount of iron and galvanized-iron balconies, girders, 
columns, and other building material. 

Felt hats are made in all the large cities, and straw hats everywhere. 

The manufacture of wooden and wax matches is extensively carried 
on in the country, there being several match factories in the City of 
Mexico and a large number in Puebla. 

A large business is done, although nowhere upon an extensive scale, 
in the manufacture of dulces (sweetmeats) and confections. This busi- 
ness presents a good opening for enterprise. Imported American 
candies sell in Mexico City for 11.66 per pound, silver. 

Gunpowder is also manufactured to quite an extent. In 1897 the 
Department of Promotion entered into a contract with a capitalist 
who binds himself to establish one or two f ulminite factories to manu- 
facture the article for mines and smokeless powder for sporting and 
military purposes. 

Among the distinctively Mexican industries are the beautiful drawn 
work^ and feather work, in the making of which, as well as in the spin- 
ning of horsehair riatas^ or lassos, which every Mexican charro carries 
on the pommel of his saddle, the natives of the country are unexcelled. 
Even the peon's wife has a piece of drawn work with which to cover 
her husband's dinner basket. Mexican lace is also far famed. 

There are many brick, artificial stone, tile, lime, soap, varnish, paint, 

^In Silao, Guanajuato, a resident owns a beautiful tablecloth of drawn work and 
embroidery. It is pure linen, 13 feet long by 6^ wide. It took 30 Mexican women 
three years to complete it, and cost $10,000. It will be exhibited at the Paris Expo- 
sition in 1900. 



214 MEXICO. 

starch, musical instrument, harness, blank-book, and other manufac- 
tories. 

Despite the fact that Mexico is a large producer of cabinet woods, 
the manufacture of furniture is but little developed. The rich and 
well-to-do classes import nearly if not all of their furniture, upon 
which heavy duties are levied, and the poorer classes need but little, 
and that of the most humble description. 

Since the first edition of the Handbook of Mexico was issued the 
country has made great strides in the industrial and manufacturing 
field, A progressive Government has done all in its power to foster 
home manufacture, and has offered great inducements to those who 
wish to establish upon Mexican soil enterprises which will utilize 
within its borders those articles which its fecund soil produces. 

Many American manufacturing firms have within the past years 
established branch plants in the more northern States, and are meeting 
with marked success. 

Rubber factories are springing up, electrical plants for the trans- 
mission of power are being installed, a syndicate of wealthy Spaniards 
is now erecting a large petroleum refinery near the City of Mexico, 
and, not long ago, the governor of Nuevo Leon granted a concession 
to an American company to establish at Monterey a manufactory of 
perfumes, Florida water, vinegar, etc.; also a concession to erect a 
mill to grind corn and oats, to be equipped with American machinery. 

At the close of the year 1897 the Government entered into two con- 
tracts for the establishment in the Republic of packing houses. This 
will provide a market for the large number of cattle exported to the 
United States for the consumption of American packing houses, and 
will give great impulse to the cattle-breeding industry. 

Smelting and reduction works, waterworks, electric plants, etc., 
are springing up throughout the country, and the columns of the Gov- 
ernment Ofiicial Gazette are daily filled with applications for patents, 
waste lands, water privileges, railroad franchises, etc., all of which 
indicate that an era of prosperity has dawned. 

Among other industries to be established in the country, according 
to reports, are a condensed-milk factory with a minimum capital of 
$150,000; oil and soap factories equipped with electric light and power- 
ful machinery ; a large factory in Yucatan to utilize henequen and similar 
fibers for the manufacture of cordage, hammocks, and bags, the plant 
being expected to produce 14,000,000 kilograms of fine thread, bind- 
ing twine, cordage, bags, etc.; hat factories; electric light and power 
plants; a bicycle and typewriter factory, and one for iron safes, etc. 

President Diaz, in his last message to Congress,^ refers as follows to 
the industrial development of the country: 

"The manufacturing industries also give evidence of noteworthy 

1 September 16, 1899. 



MEXICO. 215 

progress, the following plants, which have been erected under conces- 
sions from the Federal Government for the utilization of water power, 
being especially entitled to mention on account of their evident impor- 
tance: The Industrial Company, of Veracruz, erected a dam on the 
Rio Blanco in order to utilize a volume of water which under a suit- 
able elevation produces 1,500 horsepower, consumed in the spinning 
and weaving factory of Santa Rosa, inaugurated in May of the present 
year; the Industrial Company, of Orizaba, constructed another dam 
on the Tlilapam River with a race of 1,700 meters in length, convey- 
ing the water to four turbines connected with dynamos, developing 
2,350 horsepower; the electrical energy thus generated is transmitted 
by means of overhead wires to the Rio Blanco cotton factory; the 
San Ildefonso Company has completed all its waterworks on the 
Monte Alto River, including an aggregate of 25 kilometers of races 
with dams, sluices, and other engineering works of importance; along 
the Tlalnepantla River 25 more kilometers of races are about to be 
completed; the ensemble of these works, with their respective electric 
plants, will produce an effective energy of 5,500 steam horsepower, 
which will be transmitted to the City of Mexico. In the district of 
Atlixco, State of Puebla, another company has erected waterworks 
sufficient to produce 1,125 horsepower, to be utilized in a new spin- 
ning and weaving factory. Still another company has completed 
waterworks on the Cuautitlan River of sufficient importance to pro- 
duce 810 horsepower. The development of the manufacturing inter- 
est is also proved by the increased value of the exportation of 
manufactured products, amounting in the last fiscal year to more than 
$2,600,000, showing an increase of more than $700,000 over the pre- 
ceding year. A considerable increase is also observed in the impor- 
tation of machinery, copper wire, iron, steel, and coal. A corporation 
has recently been organized in Europe, composed of firms of high 
standing in Paris, Berlin, and Geneva, to undertake industrial enter- 
prises in the Republic." 

The business movement in Mexico for the year 1899, as shown by 
the Recorder of Public Instruments, is as follows: 

January $7, 387, 398. 07 

February 9, 742, 443. 52 

March , 9, 686, 092. 51 

April 4, 799, 262. 61 

May 6,713,275.43 

June 8, 224, 135. 71 

July 4, 829, 384. 68 

August 6, 296, 571. 45 

September. 15, 650, 549. 65 

October 5, 267, 844. 08 

November 8, 918, 626. 18 

December 6, 857, 401. 60 

Total , , . , 94, 372, 985. 49 



216 MEXICO. 

Among the companies mentioned were: The Mexican Motive Power 
Company, incorporated with a capital of $10,000,000; the United States 
Banking Company, incorporated with a capital of $100,000; the Petro- 
leum and Liquid Fuel Company, capital $502,500; reorganization of 
the Veracruzana Industrial Company, capital $1,735,000; sale of the 
dry goods establishment ' ' El Puerto de Tampico," the amount involved 
being $186,814.95; the incorporation of the Banco Central Mexicano, 
with a capital of $6,000,000; the incorporation of the cigarette manu- 
facturing company known as "El Buen Tono," with a capital of 
$2,500,000, and the incorporation of the Parral-Durango Railroad 
Company, with a capital of $1,000,000. 

It may not be amiss to close this chapter with a statement of the 
various nationalities represented in Mexico's business pursuits. The 
French control the dry goods business; the Germans are largely inter- 
ested in the drug and liquor trade; the Spaniards supply the groceries; 
the Americans run the railroads and represent large United States 
firms, and the Italians are the coppersmiths. 



CHAPTER XI. 

COMMERCE. 

The history of the commercial development of Mexico is too long 
to be followed step by step. The natives of the Western Continent, 
even before its discovery and conquest, maintained a rudimentary 
commerce, and in Mexico, among the Aztecs, such as were interested 
in international trade were highly honored, and were designated as 
Pohtecas. Instead of coins, copper pieces in T shape, grains or nug- 
gets of gold, cacao nuts, etc. , were used. True commerce, which neces- 
sarily entailed the use of metal coins, did not exist until the conquest, 
and it was not until the Spaniards found that' gold and silver were be- 
coming scarce that they thought of creating a trade between the new 
possessions and the mother country. As a consequence Spanish ves- 
sels loaded with merchandise began to arrive at the ports of Veracruz 
and Campeche, taking on their return trips immense cargoes of hides, 
indigo, tobacco, dyewoods, and other products. This trade increased 
with the foundation of the mint in Mexico, which was the first to be 
established in the New World, but it was hampered to a great extent 
by the difficulties encountered between Spain and Mexico, the English 
and French pirates who infested the ocean. The port of Acapulco 
was open to the products of the Philippine Islands, which were so 
valuable that it was claimed that each vessel freighted at Manila had 
on board merchandise worth 2,000,000 pesos. Trade then sprang up 
with China, Japan, and Peru, so that Mexico, in the sixteenth century 
was the greatest commercial center of the then known world. During 
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries domestic trade began to be 
developed, and foreign commerce fell off, owing to the constant wars 
between Spain and the various European States. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the foreign trade of the 
Republic revived, reaching, it is claimed, the sum of 25,000,000 pesos 
for imports and over 16,000,000 for exports. Until about thirty years 
ago, however, the unsettled condition of the country was a serious 
impediment to this line of development; but peace being then estab- 
lished, railroads were constructed, bringing with them increased activ- 
ity in commerce, industries and the arts; in short, of every branch of 
public prosperity and wealth. 

The domestic trade of the country is made up of the interchange of 
natural products and the products of native industry for such as are 

217 



218 



MEXICO. 



not indigenous to the country, or, if so, are produced on too small a 
scale to meet the requirements of native consumption; hence the 
necessity for importing such goods as are required to make up the bal- 
ance of trade. 

The principal exports of Mexico are precious metals, henequen, cof- 
fee, cattle, etc., while the principal imports are machinery, cotton 
textiles, iron and steel, wines and liquors, wood and paper and manu- 
factures thereof, and textile fibers. 

Don Salvador Echegaray, director of the Bureau of Statistics of 
Mexico, in a paper read before the International Commercial Congress 
in Philadelphia, October, 1899, made in substance the following state- 
ment in regard to Mexican trade development: 

During the last twenty-five years the Republic of Mexico, under 
President Diaz's Government, has enjoyed peace; the construction of 
10,000 miles of railroads, the improvement of some of the ports, the 
general development of the country, and increase of public wealth 
have been made possible. 

Imports which in the fiscal year of 1871-75 did not reach 19,000,000 
Mexican dollars, in the last fiscal year (1898-99) amounted to 106,285,307 
dollars, silver, an increase of nearly 600 per cent. Exports in 1875 
were 27,318,788 in Mexican dollars, and in the last year 138,178,137 
Mexican dollars, an increase of 500 per cent. In order of importance 
the principal articles imported into Mexico are as follows:^ 



Wood textiles $3, 877, 971 

Paper and manufactures 3, 841, 244 

Textile fibers 2, 541, 878 



Machinery |16, 775, 562 

Cotton textiles 12, 292, 190 

Iron and steel 11, 920, 291 

Wines and liquors 5, 590, 984 

The most important products exported from Mexico were in the last 
fiscal year: 



Silver $66,431,541 

Henequen 18, 711, 325 

Gold 8, 843, 081 

Coffee 7,936,908 

Cattle 4,918,572 



Lead $3, 786, 144 

Copper 4, 135, 613 

Hides 3,646,915 

Precious wood 1 , 896, 908 

Broom root 1,055,669 



The foreign commerce of Mexico in the last seven fiscal years has 
been as follows: 





Importation (declared value in gold). 


Exportation (declared value in silver). 


Year. 


From United 
States. 


From other 
countries. 


Total. 


To United 
States. 


To other 
countries. 


Total. 


1892-93 

1893-94 

1894-95 

1896-96 

1896-97 

1897-98 

1898-99 


S26, 235, 963 
14, 351, 785 
15, 130, 367 
20,145,763 
22, 593, 869 
21, 490, 604 
24, 164, 687 


S17, 177, 168 
15,935,704 
18, 870, 073 
22, 108, 175 
19, 610, 235 
22, 112, 888 
26, 704, 507 


843, 413, 131 
30, 287, 489 
34,000,440 
42,253,938 
42, 204, 095 
43, 603, 492 
50, 869, 194 


$63, 791, 741 
60,660,243 
67, 322, 986 
79, 651, 695 
86, 742, 951 
94, 974, 616 

103,553,486 


123,717,466 
18,683,044 
23,531,967 
25,365,207 
24,603,543 
33, 998, 133 
34,924,651 


$87, 509, 207 
79,343,287 
90, 854, 953 
105, 016, 902 
111, 346, 494 
128, 972, 749 
138, 478, 137 


Total... 


144,113,029 


142,518,750 


286,631,779 


556,697,718 


184,824,011 


741,521,729 



^Silver valuation. 



MEXICO. 



219 



This table, embracing a period of seven years, shows that the Repub- 
lic is growing very rapidly as an exporting country, and very slowly 
as an importing one, due to competition between the Mexican and the 
foreign industries. 

Foreign commerce for the fiscal year 1898-99 can be divided by 
countries in the following manner: 



Importation 

(declared 

value in 

American 

gold). 



Exportation 
(declared 
value in 
Mexican 
dollars) . 



Germany 

Spain 

France 

England 

Italy 

Belgium 

United States . . 

Cuba... 

other countries 

Total 



85,677,925 

2,969,936 

5,929,292 

9,592,797 

380,889 

707, 408 

24, 164, 687 

24, 205 

1,431,055 



84,020,307 

1, 172, 948 

6,252,293 

14,100,928 

34,952 

2, 577, 688 

103,553,486 

5,357,884 

1,507,651 



50,869,194 



138,478,137 



The importation of American merchandise during the fiscal year of 
1898-99 was as follows: ^ 

Animal industry $1, 619, 706 

Agricultural products 5, 054, 116 

Metals and their manufactures 7, 335, 447 

Fabrics 1,131,230 

Chemical products, drugs, oils, and paints 846, 653 

Wines, liquors, fermented and unf ermented drinks 272, 246 

Paper and its manufactures 521, 689 

Machinery and apparatus 4, 826, 291 

Carriages 934, 590 

Arms and explosives 961, 295 

Sundries 661, 424 

Total 24, 164, 687 

Referring to the general condition of trade, the same authority 
stated that the greater demands for cotton goods in Mexico, due to 
the increase of public welfare and population, produces scarcely any 
effect in the increase of imports of foreign cottons, because the new 
demand has been supplied by the native factories, of which there are 
a large number equipped with every modern improvement. Foreign 
beer has practically disappeared from Mexican markets, its place being 
filled by excellent domestic beer. The importation of white paper is 
also likely to disappear within a short time. 

The low price of silver has produced an entirely different effect on 
the silver production in Mexico than it did in the United States. When 
the price of this metal reached a certain point in that country several 
mines had to be closed, while in Mexico veins were daily opened, the 

^ Goods classified according to Mexican custom-house tariff, declared value in 
American dollars. 



220 MEXICO. 

cost of production remaining almost the same, its extraction, labor, 
and transportation being- paid as formerly. In the price of some 
imported goods, such as iron, steel, dynamite, coal, and engines, 
Mexico must pay a larger amount than f ormerl3^ While this reduces 
the miner's earnings a little, it constitutes, however, an incentive for 
the increase of production. 

Mexico, which in j^ears past occupied the second place as a silver 
producer, ranking next to the United States, took the first place in the 
year 1897-98, and if she is again in the second place it is only by a 
very small margin, a little over $1,000,0(X). The exports of other 
metals and agricultural products is strongly protected by the high 
rate of exchange, which makes mining and husbandry productive in 
places where the great distance from the ports would otherwise pre- 
vent their being developed with profit. As a gold producer Mexico 
retains the fourth place, the fifth as a lead producer, and the sixth as a 
producer of copper. Within four years the exports of the latter metal, 
of which Mexico has extensive mines, is expected to be doubled, 

Mexico's industrial awakening can not be credited solely to the 
depreciation of silver. The construction of railroad lines and the 
introduction of foreign capital, attracted by the facilities granted by 
the Government, are factors which have contributed to the flourishing 
conditions of the country. The profitable exportation of some prod- 
ucts increases their prices for home consumption, but staple products, 
such as corn and beans, have suffered no alteration. 

The exports of merchandise from the United States to Mexico, which 
in 1888 were .about $10,000,000, were in the fiscal year 1898-99 about 
$24,000,000, an increase of 140 per cent. Mexico buys from the 
United States more than Italy, Russia, or Spain, more than China or 
Japan, and more than every other country in America, with the excep- 
tion of Canada. As a consumer of American goods Mexico comes 
next only to six other countries. After the United States, England, 
Germany, and France hold important places in the Mexican commerce, 
the first with its cotton goods and its iron, the second with its hard- 
ware and iron goods, and the third with its clothes, silks, carpets, and 
manufactures of hosiery. There are in Mexico a great number of Ger- 
mans in the hardware trade. Frenchmen in the clothing, and Spaniards 
in groceries. Americans have hardly begun to establish retail com- 
mercial houses, and they prefer to establish agencies, buying their 
goods from the United States. 

"American trade in Mexico," the same authority continues, "is infe- 
rior to the European, in that the American merchants want to do business 
exclusively on a cash basis, while the Europeans are willing to grant 
five or more months for payment. The custom, already firmly estab- 
lished by long practice among the large Mexican merchants, is to buy 
at long terms abroad and to sell in the same manner to the tradesman. 



MEXICO. 221 

Banking- accommodations, which the country now begins to enjoy, per- 
haps will make easy the adoption of the American system; but such a 
change is by no means certain, as a long habit of many years is op- 
posed to it. I have noted recently that one of the United States con- 
suls in Russia has recommended the adoption by that Empire of the 
same policy which 1 advise as convenient for the North Americans. 
To the present American system is undoubtedl}'^ due the fact that the 
trade in American goods has not had in Mexico the rapid develop- 
ment which might have been expected on account of the proximity of 
the countries. 

"The report of the American consul-general for the year 1899 
says: 'As the terms of our American merchants are often very rigid, 
it is hard to reach an agreement, and much trade which by the exercise 
of a little tact and judgment could be handled by American merchants 
goes elsewhere.' Mexican merchants are noted for their integrity. 
The quoted report about commerce and industries in Mexico says: 
' There are very few concerns here doing business that have not ample 
capital to carry out all contracts into which they may enter. Failures 
are very rare, indeed, and when they do occur are carefully investi- 
gated by the authorities in the interest of creditors, and any attempts 
to defraud are severely punished. Book entries are regarded as sacred. 
All books kept by business houses are known and small stamp taxes 
paid on them, and thus a sort of surveillance is kept over them by the 
Government authorities. ' 

' ' The American business man can find at the very doors of his coun- 
try an extensive territory for the employment of his capital. Enter- 
prises for the building of irrigation works, the execution of municipal 
works that the Mexican cities are desirous of carrying into effect 
(chiefly in matters of water supply and the establishment of sewerage 
systems), demand capital. For the establishment of small industries, 
such as manufactories of soap of all kinds, oils, furniture, doors, etc., 
there are also opportunities all over Mexico. The cities of Mexico 
and Guadalajara will very soon have electrical power for sale. For 
establishments on a large scale it will be easy to utilize the waterfalls, 
chiefly in the regions forming the descent of the central plateau to the 
Atlantic and the Pacific. 

"The growing prosperity of foreign commerce gives the measure of 
the progress of the country, but what confirms even more the optimistic 
opinions about the future of Mexico is the figures showing the constant 
increase in the public revenue, due only to a greater return from the 
productive sources and not to new or higher taxes. " 

The imports of Mexico for the fiscal year 1898-99 amounted to 
$50,869,191, gold, as already stated, showing an increase of $7,265,702 
over the figures for the preceding year. Imports from the United 
States for the period in reference amounted to $21,164,687, gold, also 



222 



MEXICO. 



showing an increase of $2,674,083, while the imports from other coun- 
tries exceeded the values for 1897-98 by $4,691,619. Exports of Mex- 
ican products in 1898-99 amounted to 1138,478,137, Mexican silver, or 
a gain of $9,405,343, Mexican silver valuation, over the year before, 
the share of the United States being $103,553,486 and of other 
countries $34,924,615, or an increase of $8,578,870 and $926,482, 
respectively. 

The figures below show that American trade is distancing all com- 
petition, thus proving the acceptability of United States wares to 
Mexican markets: 



Country. 



United States 

England 

France 

Germany 

Spain 

Belgium 

Italy 

Cuba 

All other countries (45) , 

a Declared value in American gold 



1898-99. 



Imports, a Exports, h 



124, 164, 687 

9,592,797 

6, 929, 292 

5,677,925 

2,969,936 

707,408 

380, 889 

24, 206 

1,431,055 



8103,553,486 
14, 100, 928 
6, 252, 293 
4, 020, 307 
1,172,948 
2, 577, 688 
34, 952 
5,267,884 
1,507,651 



Imports, a Exports. 6 



821, 490, 604 

8, 105, 696 

5, 435, 698 

4,781,821 

2, 039, 132 

590, 196 

186, 273 

1,130 

972, 942 



$94, 974, 616 
14, 775, 638 
5,320,016 
6,995,733 
1, 231, 342 
1,556,090 
30, 600 
2,152,544 
1,936,170 



h Declared value in Mexican silver. 



The following figures, compiled from Mexican official sources,^ show 
the exports and imports for the fiscal years from 1897 to 1899, also 
the increase or decrease during the period named: 

Exports. 



Year. 


Precious metals. 


other articles. 


Total. 


189g-99 


$80, 257, 861 
75,042,332 


$52,220,286 
53,930,417 


$138,478,137 


1897-98 


128,972,749 






Difference in 1898-99 


11,215,519 


— 1,710,131 


9,505,388 







The list of exports embraces 215 numbers, or classes, a resume of 
which, according to Mexican official figures, gives the following results 
for 1898-99: 

Mineral products: 

Precious metals and ores"^ $76, 195, 657 

Industrial metals and ores 9, 489, 648 

Mineral fuel 509,262 

Miscellaneous 63, 262 

$86, 257, 851 

iBoletin de Estadistica Fiscal, 1898-99, No. 194, Mexico, 1899. 

* In the above table gold is estimated at 1675.417 per kilogram and silver at $40,915, 
pursuant to the Mexican regulations in the premises of June 26, 1895. 

The average value of the Mexican silver dollar in New York during the year 
1898-99 was $0.4750. 



MEXICO. 

Vegetable products |40, 271, 661 

Animal products 9, 205, 128 

Manufactured products 2, 615, 768 

Miscellaneous 27, 729 



223 



$52, 220, 286 



138, 478, 137 
Increase due to difference in price of gold exported, estimated at 
1675.417 per kilogram, and it commercial value 9, 975, 697 

Total - - 148, 453, 834 

Imports. 



Year. 


Free merchan- 
dise (gold). 


Dutiable goods 
(gold). 


Total (gold). 


1898-99 


17,627,766 
7, 645, 742 


143,241,428 
35,957,750 


$50, 869, 194 


1897-98 


43, 603, 492 






DiSerence, 1899 


— 17,976 


7,283,678 


7,265,702 





The total difference, in Mexican pesos, is equivalent to $10,346,151 
in favor of 1898-99. 

The list of imports embraces 72 classes free of duty and 849 duti- 
able, a resume of which for 1898-99 is as follows:^ 

Animals and animal substances: 

Live animals $407, 168 

Animal products, unmanufactured 765, 859 

Animal products, manufactured 1, 314, 840 

Animal products, miscellaneous 1, 063, 342 

$3,551,109 

Vegetable substances: 

Textile fibers 1,210,418 

Fruits and grains 1, 299, 226 

Vegetable products, raw 517, 815 

Vegetable products, manufactured , 1, 222, 442 

Wood and manufactures of 2, 079, 610 

Miscellaneous 552, 700 

Furniture : 364,073 

■- 7, 246, 284 

Mineral substances: 

Gold, silver, and platinum 238, 653 

Copper 1,035,039 

Tin, lead, and zinc 205,563 

Iron and steel 5,676,329 

Other metals 452,181 

Stone and earth 3,472,086 

Crystal, glass, earthenware, and porcelain 1, 204, 562 

12,284,413 

^The values of the imports have been calculated, reducing foreign money to Mex- 
ican pesos; that is, calculating the United States dollar at par, the pound sterling 
at $5, the franc at 20 cents, and the mark at 25 cents. 



224 



MEXICO. 



Textiles and manufactures of: 

Cotton $5, 853, 424 

Flax 597,677 

Wool 1, 846, 653 

Silk 647,474 

Silk mixed with other fibers 660, 666 

m, 605, 894 

Chemical and pharmaceutical i^roducts - 2, 078, 405 

Spiritous, fermented, and natural beverages 2, 662, 356 

Paper and manufactures of 1, 829, 164 

Machinery and apparatus ■. . 7, 988, 362 

Vehicles 1,069,979 

Arms and explosives 1, 231, 665 

Miscellaneous 1 , 321, 563 

Grand total (in gold) ^50, 869, 194 

A comparative table of the export trade of Mexico in 1898-99 and 
1897-98 shows the following differences: 



Products. 


1898-99. 


1897-98. 


Difference. 


Mineral 


886,257,851 

40,371,661 

9,205,128 

2,615,768 

27, 729 


$83,392,589 

34,743,290 

8,889,147 

1, 909, 761 

37,962 


Sa, 865, 262 

5,628,371 

315,981 

706,007 

10 233 


Vegetable 


Animnl 


Manufactured 


Miscellaneous 






Total (silver) 


148,453,834 


138, 068, 504 


10,385,330 





The increase shown in the total exports, compared with the former 
tables, is due to the difference between the commercial value of the 
gold exported and its export price, as before stated. This difference 
between 1898-99 and the previous j^ear was 1879,942 in favor of 1898-99, 
or 9. 67 per cent, while the total increase of the export trade for the 
same year, compared with 1897-98, was 7.25 per cent. 

As regards imports, the difference was as follows: 



Difference. 



Animal substances 

Vegetable substances 

Mineral substances 

Textiles, and manufactures of 

Chemicals, etc 

Spirituous liquors 

Paper and manufactures of 

Machinery, etc 

Carriages 

Arms, etc 

Miscellaneous 

Total 



S3, 551, 109 
7, 246, 284 

12, 284, 413 
9, 605, 894 
2,078,405 
2,662,356 
1,829,164 
7, 988, 362 
1, 069, 979 
1, 231, 665 
1, 321, 563 



50, 869, 194 



$2, 337, 444 
6, 069, 229 

11, 394, 581 
8,155,367 
1,946,456 
2, 254, 184 
1, 361, 316 
C, 270, 652 
1, 100, 373 
1, 618, 233 
1,095,657 



43, 603, 492 



$1, 213, 665 

1,177,055 

889, 832 

1, 450, 527 

131, 949 

408, 172 

467, 848 

1, 717, 710 

30, 394 

386, 568 

225, 906 



7, 265, 702 



These figures show an increase of 16.66 per cent for 1898-99. 
Taking the principal items of export, as shown in the table for 
exports above given, it is found that the exports of silver were 



^ The imports through the mails are not included in this table. 



MEXICO. 225 

),4:29,954 for silver bullion, 114,116,935 for Mexican silver com, 
and $9,864,850 for silver ore, or a total of $64,401,739, being nearly 
one-third of the total for mineral exports. The exports of gold bul- 
lion amounted to 17,347,760; copper and copper ores, $5,600,834, 
and lead, $3,786,144. The second largest export is raw heniquen, 
$18,711,326 — almost two-thirds of the total export figures for vegeta- 
ble substances — the other large exports under this head being coffee, 
$7,936,908; leaf tobacco, $2,515,606; cabinet woods (mahogany, 
cedar, ebony, etc.), $1,896,973; vanilla, $1,283,057; dyewoods, 
$1,156,902; broom-corn root, $1,055,669, and raw ixtle, $865,966. 
The most important article under the head of " Animals and animal 
products" is beef cattle, to the amount of $4,723,500 — nearly one-half 
of the total exports under this classification. Goatskins and ox hides 
rank next, with valuations of $2,069,549 and $1,289,538, respectively. 
In manufactured products, the largest export was manufactured 
tobacco, including cigars, cigarettes, etc., $894,700, or a trifle over 
one-third of the total under this classification. Other important- 
exports are cotton-seed cake, $369,327; flour, $300,666; sisal (cord- 
age, hammocks, bags, etc.), $206,047, and reexported foreign goods 
to the value of $360,040. 

As regards imports, the leading among free articles were railroad 
material, $1,701,743; coal, $1,340,264; manufactures of wood (barrels, 
boxes, railwaj^ sleepers, telegraph and telephone posts, etc.), $657,016; 
railway cars and coaches, $538,854. Among the dutiable goods the 
largest imports were as shown in the following tables: 

Animals and animal products: 

Live stock (all kinds) $391,624 

Wool (raw) 403,364 

Raw skins and hides 137, 546 

Canned meats, fish, butter, etc 466, 890 

Condensed milk 210, 807 

Cheese 125,122 

Stearin 182, 992 

Furs and skins, and manufactures of 521, 882 

Boots and shoes 230, 906 

Manufactured animal products 310, 193 

Vegetable substances: 

Ginned cotton 1,005,939 

Other fibers 142,530 

Cacao (all kinds) 260, 897 

Dried fruits 262,013 

Wheat and other cereals 262,013 

Almonds (all kinds) , shelled 112, 418 

Fresh fruits, etc 111,120 

Virginia leaf tobacco 162, 811 

Olive oil 106,684 

Cotton-seed oil (crude) 505, 108 

Lumber and timber 130, 958 

65lA 15 



226 MEXICO. 

Vegetable substances — Continued. 

Manufactures of wood $299, 568 

Bags and bagging 330,920 

Furniture (all kinds) 364, 073 

Mineral substances: 

Gold, silver, and platinum, and manufactures of 161, 674 

Copper and alloys in bars and plates 110, 350 

Copper and alloys, manufactures of 710, 053 

Manufactures of tin, lead, and zinc 160, 116 

Iron wire for fences. 251, 935 

Plows and plowshares 130, 300 

Iron pipes (all sizes) 472, 381 

Agricultural implements 213, 390 

Iron bands 135, 577 

Iron sheets for roofing (all kinds) 497, 148 

Tin plates 126,853 

Iron girders and beams 242, 399 

Manufactures of tin, galvanized iron, etc 227, 075 

Manufactures of iron, enameled, etc 146, 051 

Manufactures of iron, not specified 613, 611 

Nails, tacks, screws, etc 276, 494- 

Lime, Portland cement, etc 240, 803 

Mineral oils (crude) 421, 677 

ParaflSn 260,435 

Miscellaneous, including tiles, bricks, etc 228, 870 

Glass bottles 270, 699 

China and earthen ware 290, 125 

Crystal and glass ware, n. e. s - 188, 183 

Textiles and manufactui'es of: 

Cotton thread, on si^ools - 549, 486 

Cotton thread in balls and skeins 224, 036 

Lace of all kinds, and manufactures of , n. e. s 242, 540 

Cottons, not more than 30 threads per square of 5 millimeters 956, 879 

The same, over 30 threads 122,762 

Cotton prints, not exceeding 30 threads per square of 5 millimeters.. 1, 355, 807 

The same, exceeding 30 threads 124, 691 

Cotton cloth, openwork or embroidered 1, 064, 402 

Stockinet and manufactures of , n. e. s 362, 389 

Cotton braids, trimmings, etc 122, 349 

Elastic webbing 198,103 

Cotton edgings, insertions, etc., embroidered with cotton, linen, wool, 

or silk 132,324 

Cloth, linen, hemp, or other like fibers, white, drab, or colored, plain 

woven, over 12 threads per square of 5 millimeters 267, 646 

Woolen cloths (all weavings and kinds) 1, 242, 631 

Silk fabrics (all weavings and kinds) 268, 013 

Articles and manufactures of silk, n. e. s 259, 783 

Cloth of silk warp, and cotton, linen, or wool filling or vice versa. . . 240, 647 

Articles of silk with mixture of cotton, linen, or wool, all kinds 223, 621 

Chemical and pharmaceutical products: 

Drugs and medicines of all kinds 466, 574 

Colors, powdered, in crystals, or prepared 337, 340 

Caustic soda and potash 184, 363 

Sulphate of copper, iron, and ammonia 267, 235 



MEXICO. 227 

Spirituous, fermented and natural beverages: 

Rum in glass 1525,884 

Rum in casks ,. 181 735 

Beer and cider in glass 112, 559 

White and red wine in the wood 1 256 823 

White and red wine in the glass 349 953 

Sparkling wines 107 272 

Paper and its manufactures: 

Wrapping paper 178,779 

Cigarette paper 365, 402 

Cardboard, manufactures of, n. e. s 102 878 

Printed books, bound I77 932 

Machinery and apparatus: 

Pumps and turbines 247 488 

Hardware of all kinds for trades 376 522 

Musical instruments (all kinds) 325 506 

Steam engines and parts of 2 399 851 

Machinery and apparatus of all kinds, n. e. s., for power other than 

hand or foot 3,437,352 

The same, for foot or hand power 656 920 

Printing and lithographic presses and accessories 115, 267 

Vehicles: 

Carts, wagons, and cars without springs, for freight 112 463 

Wheelbarrows, one or two wheels II5 469 

Bicycles, all kinds 96 355 

Arms and explosives: 

Breech-loading firearms, of all kinds and accessories 183, 290 

Loaded and empty shells for firearms 105 400 

Dynamite and other explosives 557 523 

Fuses and detonators for mining 104 oil 

Miscellaneous: 

Lubricating oils IO9 314 

Manufactures of gutta-percha and celluloid, n. e. s 163, 811 

Hats, all kinds, and accessories I49 658 

Rubber belts for machinery 69 323 

Rubber hose 50 393 

Iron, steel, and wood buildings 63 163 

Roofing materials . . ._ 40 054 

Perfumery 1 74^ 749 

Under the general head "American commerce," the Monthly Sum- 
mary of Commerce and Finance/ prepared by the Bureau of Statis- 
tics, Treasury Department, United States, reviewing- the trade of the 
United States with Mexico, says, in part, as follows: 

"The exports of merchandise from the United States to Mexico, 
which in 1888 were $9,897,772, were in 1898 $21,206,939, an increase 
of 111 per cent. During the same time the exports from the United 
Kingdom to Mexico increased from $6,683,432 in 1888 to $8,427,989 
in 1897, an increase of 26.12 per cent. The exports of France to 
Mexico in 1888 were $8,471,374, and in 1897 $5,123,488, a loss of 39.39 

^ No. 12, series 1898-99. 



228 MEXICO. 

per cent. Germany, who has been making rapid gains in her export 
trade to all American countries south of the United States, sold to 
Mexico in 1888 goods valued at $1,616,020, and in 1897 $4,257,106, an 
increase of 8 per cent; while Spain, although speaking the same lan- 
guage, exported to Mexico in 1888 goods valued at only $1,344,885, and 
in 1896, the latest available figures, $1,675,657. The most important of 
our exports to Mexico are manufactures of iron and steel, machinery, 
unmanufactured cotton, lumber, manufactures of wood, manufactures 
of cotton, and gunpowder. Under the general classification of ' Manu- 
factures of iron and steel ' the exports increased rapidly between 1890 
and 1898, as did also builders' hardware and machinery, as will be seen 
by an examination of the accompanying tables. Unmanufactured 
cotton exported to Mexico in 1898 amounted to $1,321,473 in value, 
against $1,217,805 in 1890, showing a slight increase; cotton cloths 
show a slight reduction, the total for 1898 being $415,910, against 
$468,757 in 1890, this decrease being due to the rapid increase in the 
cotton-growing and manufacturing industries of Mexico. In the finer 
grades of manufactures there is a marked increase. Furniture and all 
other articles included under the general head of manufactures of 
lumber increased from $328,707 in 1890 to $515,676 in 1898; gunpowder 
and other explosives from $364,568 in 1890 to $756,494 in 1898; steam 
engines from $283,005 in 1890 to $559,401 in 1898. The total for 1898 
is slightly below that for 1897, owing to the unusual demand for corn 
from the United States in 1897, of which the exportations in that year 
amounted to $3,233,281, against but $43,557 in 1898, in which year the 
home supply of corn in Mexico was equal to the demand. 

"The imports of merchandise into the United States from Mexico 
nearly equal our exports to that country, and in addition to this 
Mexico sends us large quantities of her gold and silver in ore, for 
which we have better smelting and refining facilities than she possesses. 
The importations of precious metals into the United States from 
Mexico in 1898 were: Gold, $5,122,282; silver, $25,028,888, including 
coin, base bullion, and ore, though the most of this was in the form 
of base bullion and ore. Of merchandise other than the precious 
metals, our total imports from Mexico in 1898 were $19,004,863, 
against $21,206,939 of exports to Mexico. The chief imports from 
Mexico are coffee, hides, textile grasses (especially sisal), cattle, lead, 
copper, and tobacco. The importations of coffee have materially 
fallen during the last few years, the imports of coffee in 1898 being 
$3,599,392, against $5,094,839 in 1891. 

"The importance of the trade of Mexico naturally attracts the atten- 
tion of the civilized world. With an area nearly equal to that of all of 
the United States lying east of the Mississippi Eiver, possessed of a 
fertile soil and a semitropical climate, productive mines, and such 
supplies of natural water power as to give her valuable facilities for 



MEXICO. 



229 



manufacturing, the future commerce of that country is looked upon as 
likely to be of great value. The supply of minerals is very large, 
including gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, quicksilver, tin, cobalt, 
antimony, coal, and petroleum, and the latest record (1894) shows 
over 3,000 mining enterprises in actual operation in the country. 
Coffee, tobacco, hemp, sisal, sugar, dyewoods, and cabinet woods are 
the most important of her products for the export trade aside from the 
precious metals, which form a large portion of her exports. Of the 
exportations of 1897-98, which amounted to $128,972,745 in Mexican 
dollars (or 159,069,519 in United States currency), $75,042,332 was 
precious metals and $53,930,417 merchandise. Of the exportations, 
$94,974,616 was sent to the United States, $14,775,638 to Great 
Britain, $6,995,733 to Germany, $5,320,016 to France. The relative 
importance of the exports, aside from precious metals, were, hene- 
quen, $11,588,572; coffee, $10,649,119; cattle, $4,507,327; tobacco, 
$4,489,768; hides and skins, $3,597,077; wood, $3,597,069, all stated 
in Mexican dollars." 

From the same source it appears that the trade between Mexico 
and the United States during the fiscal years 1897-98 and 1898-99 
was as follows: 





1898-99. 


1897-98. 


Difference. 


Exports to Mexico 


825,480,281 
22,994,091 


121,206,939 
19,004,863 


$4, 273, 342 




3, 989, 228 






Total 


48,474,372 


40,211,802 


8, 262, 570 







According to the same authority the principal imports made by the 
United States from Mexico during the last two fiscal years named 
were as shown in the following table: 



Articles. 



Difference. 



Logwood 

Bituminous coal 

Coffee 

Henequ6n 

Oranges 

Hides and skins 

Rubber 

Lead (pig, bars) 

Sugar 

Tobacco, leaf . . . 
Mahogany 



$22, 853 
284,884 

2,686,248 

8, 902, 213 
139, 644 

1, 879, 750 
142,887 

1,908,111 

52,976 

229,554 

413,222 



$21,922 
200, 728 

3, 299, 392 

5, 104, 228 
134, 672 

1,698,574 
41, 901 

1,601,468 

44,598 

259, 279 

309, 493 



- 34,156 
913, 144 

3,797,985 

4,972 

181, 176 

100, 986 

306, 653 

- 8, 378 
29,725 

103, 729 



230 



MEXICO. 



Exports of American merchandise to the same country during the 
period under comparison were as follows: 



Articles. 



Agricultural implements 

Cattle 

Hogs 

Horses 

Sheep 

Books, maps, engravings, etc 

Corn 

Wheat flour 

Wheat 

Carriages, etc 

Cycles and parts 

Clocks and watches 

Coal 

Copper 

Cotton, unmanufactured 

Cotton cloths 

Wearing apparel 

Fruits and nuts 

Hides and skins 

Electric and scientific apparatus . 

steel rails 

Hardware 

Sewing machines 

Typewriting machines 

Leather (not sole) 

Boots and shoes , 

Rosin, tar, etc 

Turpentine 

Mineral oil, crude 

Mineral oil, refined 

Oils, vegetable 

Paraffin 

Canned beef 

Beef, salted or pickled 

Tallow 

Bacon 

Hams 

Lard 

Oleo and oleomargarine 

Butter 

Cheese 

Seeds 

Sugar, refined 

Tobacco, unmanufactured 

Tobacco, manufactured 

Wood, unmanufactured 

Lumber 

Furniture 



1898-99. 


1897-98. 


Difference. 


8223,476 


S124,368 


898, 108 


98, 920 


78,400 


20,620 


87,642 


44, 487 


43,165 


81,849 


77,090 


4,769 


11,525 


9,748 


1,777 


67,819 


125, 006 


- 67,187 


63,412 


43,557 


19,855 


138,979 


86,848 


52, 131 


5,145 


41 


6,104 


510,247 


508,678 


1,569 


48, 301 


68,022 


- 19,721 


28,008 


20, 128 


7,920 


1,235,256 


974, 040 


261, 216 


38,800 


22, 583 


16, 217 


1,043,473 


1,321,473 


-278,000 


481, 569 


415, 910 


65, 669 


401,962 


334,615 


67,347 


75,920 


58,513 


17,407 


2,606 


2,676 


70 


427,041 


287,270 


139,771 


587,589 


561,161 


26,438 


358, 213 


461,532 


-103,319 


270, 592 


197, 692 


72,900 


45,824 


28,976 


16,849 


9,872 


9,310 


662 


212,245 


87,669 


124,676 


8,924 


10, 212 


- 1,288 


4,393 


3,629 


764 


395, 386 


317, 614 


77,872 


191, 480 


184, 088 


7,392 


491, 114 


328, 768 


162,346 


241, 110 


157,863 


83,247 


19, 570 


14,237 


5,333 


625 


492 


133 


33,575 


24,364 


9,211 


17, 277 


9,804 


7,473 


30,956 


23, 790 


7,166 


169,689 


177,525 


- 7,836 


731 


961 


230 


49,767 


43, 720 


6,047 


4,928 


3,984 


944 


15,724 


29,472 


13,748 


50,104 


18, 722 


31,382 


135,636 


143,786 


- 8,150 


20,329 


25, 914 


- 5,685 


257,918 


296,589 


- 38,671 


843,300 


797,500 


46,800 


241,771 


157,096 


84,676 



The only available figures and data in reference to Mexican com- 
merce with other countries in 1898-99 are those of the official publica- 
tions of Great Britain, which show, for the first six months of the 
year 1899, an increase over the same period in 1898. While undoubt- 
edly there were many Mexican products exported to the British mar- 
kets, they do not figure in the report named, except, perhaps, under 
general headings. The articles purchased by Mexico include the 
following items, the value of the purchases in 1898 being also given 
for the sake of comparison: Cotton manufactures — unbleached piece 
goods, £1,564: in 1899 and £1,255 in 1898; bleached piece goods, 
£89,802 in 1899 and £85,612 in 1898; printed piece goods, £74,442 in 
1899 and £55,174 in 1898; dyed piece goods, £52,974 in 1899 and 
£38,501 in 1898; total value of cotton piece goods, £218,782 
($1,064,693.21) in 1899 and £180,542 ($878,517.37) in 1898. The value 



MEXICO. 



231 



of the linen piece goods shipped in 1899 was £19,829 ($96,487.71) 
and £19,102 ($92,950.33) in 1898. 

A resume of the entire foreign trade of Mexico in 1898-99 shows 
that the imports from the principal European countries as compared 
with the previous year stood as follows: Germany, a gain of |896,101; 
Spain, $930,804; France, $481,469; Great Britain, $1,105,526; Bel- 
gium, $117,212; Austria, $195,074; India, $182,891; Italy, $194,616, 
and Switzerland, $176,107. The trade with Asia was almost wholly 
with China and Japan, and over three-fourths of that with Africa was 
with Egypt. 

With regard to America, the imports were nearly all from the United 
States, as already shown, the other countries being represented as 
follows: 



Country. 


1899. 


1898. 


Difference. 


Argentine Republic 


$126 

96 

5,621 

48, 764 

24, 205 

3,787 

87, 315 

21,388 

4,803 

12 

9,834 

813 

145 

341 

57, 391 


$90 


$36 


Bolivia 


96 




8,658 
24, 127 

1,130 

867 

73,681 

14, 950 


- 3,037 
24, 637 
23, 075 
2 920 




Cuba 


Chile 


Ecuador 

Guatemala 


13, 634 

6,438 

.4,803 

12 








Peril 


314 

3,648 

38 

52 

36, 963 


9,526 

- 2,835 

107 




Santo Domingo 




289 


Venezuela 


20, 428 







The great bulk of the imports were received at the Gulf and north- 
ern customs districts. In the official report whence these data are 
taken the receipts of merchandise for each port are given, but for con- 
venience they are grouped into four sections or classes, namely: 



Section. 


1899, 


1898. 


Difference. 


Northern frontier ; 


$U, 723, 236 

162, 918 

32, 697, 849 

3,285,191 


$12, 822, 165 

233, 002 

27,290,731 

3,257,594 


$1,901,071 

-70,084 

5,407,118 

27,597 


Southern frontier 


Gulf of Mexico 


Pacific Ocean 





■ There were no exports in 1899 to either Asia or Africa, but in 1898 
merchandise to the value of $4,312 was sent to Asia. The exports 
to Europe amounted to $28,718,088 in 1899, against $30,905,831 in 
1898, a decrease of $2,187,743. To America the figures for 1899— 
$109,760,049— show a gain of $11,697,443. Almost all of this gain 
was due to the purchases of the United States and Cuba. 



232 



MEXICO. 



The principal European countries receiving Mexican products in 
both years and the amounts for each year were: 



Country. 


1899. 


1898. 


Difference. 


Great Britain 


S14, 095, 178 

4, 020, 307 

6, 252, 293 

2, 677, 688 

1, 172, 948 

477, 709 

63, 199 

34, 952 

25,838 


S14, 775, 638 

6,996,733 

5, 320, 016 

1,566,090 

1,231,342 

719, 322 

270, 370 

30, 600 


- 8680,460 




-2,975,426 




932, 277 


Belgium 


1,021,598 




- 68, 394 


Holland 


- 241,613 




- 217, 171 


Italy . 


4,352 




25, 838 









The American countries taking Mexican products were: 



Country. 


1899. 


1898. 


Difference. 


United States 


8103,553,486 
3,000 

5, 257, 884 
245 


$94,974,616 


88, 678, 870 




3,000 


Cuba 


2, 152, 644 


3, 105, 340 


Brazil 


245 


Chile 


603 

2,260 

505 

842 

846, 016 

6,260 

390 

7,999 

21, 191 

60,720 

170 


- 603 


Colombia 


64, 977 

3,354 

366 

483,375 

195, 299 

702 

967 

61, 024 

124, 170 

11, 200 


62, 717 


Costa Rica 


2,849 




24 


Guatemala . . , 


-362, 641 


Honduras 


190, 049 




312 


Peni 


- 7, 032 


Salvador 


39, 833 


Santo Domingo . 


73, 450 




11, 030 







With reference to customs districts, the merchandise exported was 
from the following sections: , 



Section. 


1899. 


1898. 


Difference. 


Northern frontier.. 


833,241,788 
1,621,692 
92,637,414 
11,077,243 


836,183,281 

1, 948, 300 

80, 785, 690 

11,065,478 


81,941,493 




-426, 608 




11, 851, 724 


Pacific Ocean 


21, 765 







For the first six months of the fiscal year 1899-1900 the total trade 
of Mexico was as follows:^ 

Imports (gold) $28,003,742 

Exports (silver) 70,806,959 

The valuation of the imports in silver as given by the Bureau of Sta- 
tistics of Mexico is equivalent to $58,934,254, thus making a difference 
of $11,872,705 in favor of the exports. 

Imports during the six months in reference show a gain of 
$10,505,434, silver, over those of the same period in 1898-99, while 
the exports indicate a decrease of $6,009,434. The increase for imports 

^Boletin No. 13. — Seccion de Estadlstica-Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico — 
Mexico, January, 1900. 



MEXICO. 



233 



ranges from $80,000 for liquors up to $1,058,227 for machinery and 
apparatus and $1,767,561 for mineral substances. 

The decrease in exports for the periods under comparison, calculated 
upon the difference between the export price of gold ($675,416 per 
kilogram) and its commercial value, is represented as follows: 





July to December. 




1899. 


1898. 


Difference. 




840,293,696 

19,775,24ii 

5,700,500 

854,666 

325,365 


848,502,072 

17,650,061 

4,232,273 

1,301,736 

9,968 


-88,208,376 




2,125,183 




1,468,227 




- 447, 080 




316, 397 






Total 


66,949,461 


71, 696, 100 


- 4,746,649 







The imports by countries were as follows: 



Country. 


July to December. 


1899. 


1898. 


Difference. 




813,877,205 

60, 363 

12,335 

14,050,849 


811,865,710 

67,628 

3,625 

10,684,696 


82,021,495 




2,826 


Africa 


11,810 




3,366,253 




Total 


28,003,742 


22,601,359 


5,402,383 





In the total gain for Europe, France (exclusive of her colonies) was 
represented by $552,936; Germany, $435,994, and England by $594,006, 
while in the $3,366,253 for America, the share of the United States was 



$3,345,517, leaving a balance of $20,736 for the 17 other Latin-American 
countries, of which Cuba's quota was $13,000. 

The exports, by countries, for the periods under review were as 
follows: 



Country. 


1899. 


. 1898. 


Difference. 




810,942,632 
2,000 


817,466,627 


—86,523,995 
2,000 




Africa 






56,004,919 


54,229,573 


1,775,346 




Total 


66,949,451 


71,696,100 


— 4,746,649 





In this division of exports Germany's decrease is represented by 
,336; France, $657,959, and England, $5,002,107, while out of a 
total increase for Latin America of $1,775,346 the share of the 
United States is represented by $1,227,901, leaving a balance of 
$547,445 for the other countries of the continent. 

The imports by customs districts during the same periods amounted 
to $28,003,742 in 1899, against $22,601,359 in 1898, or a net gain of 
$5,402,383, while exports through the same channels were $66,949,451 
for 1899 and $71 696,100 for 1898, a net loss of $4,746,649. 



234 MEXICO. 

The ports of Mexico open to foreign commerce are divided into 
Gulf and Pacific ports, as follows: 

Gulf ports. — Alvarado, Campeche, Coatzacoalcos, Chetumal, Fron- 
tera, Isla del Carmen, Isla de Mujeres, Progreso, Tampico, Tuxpam, 
Tlacotalpam, and Veracruz. 

Pacific ports. — Acapulco, Altata, Guaymas, La Paz, Manzanillo, 
Mazatlan, San Bias, Santa Rosalia, Soconusco, and Todos Santos. 

The ports through which the coast trade is carried on on the Gulf 
side are Alvarado, Campeche, Celestun, Coatzacoalcos, Champoton, 
Chetumal, Frontera, Isla Aguada, Isla del Carmen, Isla de Mujeres, 
Nautla, Palizada, Progreso, Tampico, Tecolutla, Tlacotalpam, Tux- 
pam, and Veracruz; and on the Pacific side, Acapulco, Agiabampo, 
Altata, Bahia de la Magdalena, Guaymas, Isla del Carmen, Isla Madre, 
La Paz, Manzanillo, Mazatlan, Muleje, Perihuete, Puerto Angel, 
Salina Cruz, San Bias, San Jose del Cabo, San Quintin, Teconapa, 
Todos Santos, Santa Rosalia, Santo Domingo, Soconusco, Tonala, 
Topolobampo, and Zihuatanejo. 

The frontier custom-houses are Ciudad Juarez, Ciudad Porfirio 
Diaz, Laredo, and Nogales. 

The domestic trade of the Republic is carried on mainly by means 
of the railways and coastwise vessels, while the foreign trade with the 
United States is maintained by railroads and ocean steamers, and with 
the other nations of the world by steam and sailing vessels. 

The "Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal" for 1898-99 estimates the 
foreign trade movement as follows: 

The number of incoming vessels direct from abroad, at the 12 Gulf 
ports and the 10 Pacific ports, was 777 steamers with a cargo of 
495,976 metric tons of 1,000 kilograms, and 725 sailing vessels with a 
cargo of 194,951 metric tons, or a total of 1,502 vessels with a total 
cargo of 690,927 metric tons, divided as follows: Gulf ports, 588 
steamers and 602 sailing vessels; and Pacific ports, 189 steamers and 123 
sail; or 1,190 vessels for the Gulf and 312 for the Pacific ports, under 
the flags of the following nationalities: German, 130; American, 383; 
English, 591; Norwegian, 208; French, 20; Spanish, 59; Honduran, 
39; Mexican, 38; Russian, 12; Brazilian and Argentine, 1 each; Aus- 
trian, 5; Danish, 7; Hawaiian, 3; Dutch, 2, Swedish, 3; sailing from 
the following countries: United States, 642; England, 231; Honduras, 
218; Germany, 69; Belgium, 16; Brazil, 41; Colombia, 60; Cuba, 86; 
Spain, 63; France, 40, and the remainder from other countries. 

The outgoing foreign direct trade was carried in 1,401 vessels with 
a total cargo of 273,029 metric tons, the Gulf ports being credited with 
1,109 vessels, the cargo of which amounted to 258,404 metric tons, and 
the Pacific ports with 292 vessels and a total cargo of 14,625 metric 
tons. The nationalities of the vessels were as follows: English, 347; 



MEXICO. 



235 



American, 178; Norwegian, 160; German, 100; French, 14; Spanish, 
37, and Honduran, 38; their destination being: 682 to the United States, 
209 to England, 194 to Honduras, 45 to Colombia, 38 to Spain, 42 to 
Germany, 121 to Cuba, 25 to France, and 17 to Chile, and others 
going to Belgium, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Haiti, Hawaii, Holland, 
Italy, Russia, and Santo Domingo. 

The indirect foreign trade, was as follows, 869 incoming vessels 
with 217,647 metric tons of merchandise, and 691 outgoing with 
98,064 metric tons, of which 511 were from the United States and 404 
to that country, 118 from and 107 to Colombia, 56 from and 42 to 
Germany, 95 from and 94 to England, 6 from and 5 to France, 18 
from and 10 to Italy, 16 from and 3 to Belgium. 

Internal trade was represented by 6,749 incoming vessels with a 
total cargo of 206,365 metric tons, and 6,793 outgoing vessels with 
177,197 metric tons cargo. This trade was carried on through 18 
Gulf and 26 Pacific ports, the incoming vessels engaged comprising 
6,042 Mexican, 467 American, and 128 English, while the outgoing 
vessels comprised 6,051 Mexican, 479 American, and 141 English. 

The total navigation for 1898-99 was as follows: 





Steamers. 


Sail vessels. 




Number. 


Tonnage. 


Number. 


Tonnage. 


Incoming 


4,857 
4,670 


851,926 
419,397 


4,263 
4,215 


263,013 
128,893 


Outgoing 




Total 


9,527 


1,271,323 


8,478 


391,906 





The total tonnage was: 



steamers. 



Sail 

vessels. 



Total. 



Imports 

Exports 

Coastwise.. 

Total 



703,816 
299, 176 
268, 331 



204, 758 

71,917 

115, 281 



908, 574 
371,093 
383, 562 



1,271,323 



391, 906 



1,663,229 



A resume of the freight carried on the railways of the northern 
frontier, in the trade between Mexico and the United States, shows 
the following: 





Imports. 


Exports. 


Total. 


Frontier custom-houses. 


Number 
of cars. 


Tons. 


Number 
of cars. 


Tons. 


Number 
of cars. 


Tons. 


Ciudad Juarez 


10,612 
7,000 

13,133 
1,560 


181,036 
90, 123 

179,244 
17,436 


6,333 

5,878 
1,547 

1,748 


108, 740 
140, 320 
16,535 
22,817 


16,945 

12,878 

14, 680 

8,308 


289, 776 
230, 443 
195, 779 
40,253 


Porfirio Diaz 


Laredo 


Nogales 




Total 


32,305 


467,839 


15,506 


288,412 


47,811 


756,281 





236 



MEXICO. 



According to these figures, a total tonnage of 2,035,918 metric tons 
is indicated, of which 1,376,413 tons represent the imports and 659,505 
tons the exports. 

The total navio-ation for 1897-98 and 1896-97 was as follows;' 





Imports. 


Exports. 


Total ton- 




Vessels. 


Tons. 


Vessels. 


Tons. 


nage. 


1897-98 


10,527 
10,078 


4,085,200 
3,972,941 


10, 452 
10, 102 


3, 880, 640 
3, 889, 955 


7, 975, 840 


1896-97 


7, 862, 896 







The total railway transportation of merchandise for the same period 
was as follows: 





Year. 


Imports. 


Exports. 


Total ton- 




Cars. 


Tons. 


Cars. 


Tons. 


nage. 


1897-98 


24,279 
31,044 


382, 299 
578,934 


16, 966 
17, 119 


315,487 
349,164 


697,786 


1896-97 


928,098 







These figures show a total tonnage for 1897-98 of 8,673,626 tons, 
indicating a difl'erence of 117,368 tons in favor of 1896-97. 

The custom-house receipts growing out of the traffic above indicated 
were as follows: 



1897-98. 



Difference. 



Imports 

Exports 

other customs dues 

Total 



$26, 443, 847. 66 

1, 065, 998. 78 

953, 943. 03 



$20, 963, 442. 63 

1,414,938.50 

644, 237. 09 



5, 480, 405. 03 

-348, 939. 72 

309, 705. 94 



28,463,789.47 



23, 022, 618. 22 



5, 441, 175. 26 



These figures show an increase for 1898-99 of 23.63 per cent. 

According to official data the Mexican merchant marine consists of 
266 vessels, with a united tonnage of 17,046. Of these vessels, 41 are 
steamers, representing 10,314 tons, and 225 are sailing vessels, with 
6,732 tons, measurement capacity. 

The tariff law now in force in Mexico was promulgated on June 12, 
1891, and went into effect on November 1, following, several amend- 
ments having since been made. A synopsis of the general regulations 
of the tariff law of the Mexican United States (Tarifa de la Ordenanza 
General de Aduanas de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos), in so far as it 
treats of the obligations of shippers, passengers, etc., is given below. ^ 
The import tariff contains 921 different articles, divided into 11 general 
heads, these again being subdivided into 73 classes. The latest modi- 



1 Estadistica Fiscal No. 174, Mexico, 1898. 

' The Bureau of the American Republics will furnish any further information in 
this regard upon application. 



MEXICO. 237 

fications and amplifications were published in February, 1899, by the 
Bureau of American Republics. 

Accompanying these modifications are a number of explanatory 
notes, the purpose of which is to fix more exactly the character of the 
merchandise coming under the several classifications. 

The note in regard to the importation of all kinds of fine stock for 
breeding purposes is of interest, in view of the fact that the new tariff 
on the subject may give rise to a very considerable trade in the bring- 
ing in of pedigreed animals. The note in question is as follows: 

"The free importation of thoroughbred animals included in this sec- 
tion and intended for breeding purposes may be granted when they 
come with their pedigree or certificate showing the purity of their 
breed; but the opinion of the Department of Promotion shall pre- 
viously be heard with respect to the standing of the breed of which 
specimens are to be imported, the authenticity of the pedigree, and 
the reliance to be placed in the persons signing the same. In view 
of these particulars and others that the Department of Finance may 
consider proper to gather to the same end, and for the purpose of 
ascertaining the use which is to be made of the animals whose free 
importation is desired, the privilege of free importation may be 
granted, specifying the number of animals included in the privilege 
and requiring whatever guaranty may be deemed necessary, which 
shall be forfeited in case the animals are applied to any other use than 
that declared, or in case the pedigree, even after being accepted, should 
turn out to be false, without prejudice to applying in such cases the 
penalties provided by the customs regulations for smuggling,"' 

The following are the principal regulations governing the shipping 
of merchandise: 

I. Shippers of goods to Mexican ports must supply an invoice of 
the goods shipped, even when such goods are for the public service 
of the Nation or the States, owing to a special concession, or are free 
from import duties. Separate invoices, in triplicate or quadruplicate, 
as the law may require, must be made out for each consignee. 

II. Shippers of goods may include in one package several bales, 
boxes, mats, rolls, or any other container inclosing goods of a like 
nature, provided the consular invoice expresses the number of pack- 
ages contained in each outer covering, bale, or box. Should this not 
be done, or the failure not corrected within ninety-six hours after the 
entry of the vessel at the receiving custom-house, a fine not exceeding 
$50 will be imposed. 

From this rule are excepted: 

First. Heavy goods, which are usually tied together, such as iron 
and steel bars, pipes, metal sheets, boards for packing boxes and 
roofs, buckets and pails of wood or metal, parts of machinery, all 
similar goods, and free articles. 



238 MEXICO. 

Second. Cans or immediate wrappings or containers of goods 
packed in each package. 

Third. Piece goods in bales or cases; bottles, jars, or flasks contain- 
ing elementary substances, drugs, perfumery, etc. ; and in general, 
small parcels, bags, boxes, or any other kind of packages put up in a 
strong outer container. 

III. Consular invoices must declare separately the gross, net, and 
legal ^ weights, as the law may require, of packages which, while of the 
same article, come in different parcels. 

Packages containing cotton, linen, wool or silk textures, or goods 
may be declared collectively with their joint weights or measures in 
oase the goods are of a like tariff class, and their difference in weight 
does not exceed 10 kilograms. 

Any infraction of this provision is punishable by a fine of $50, 
though the consignee is allowed until the inspector is named to dis- 
patch the goods in which to correct errors. 

IV. Interlineations, scratchings, erasures, or corrections causing a 
want of uniformity in the several copies of a consular invoice are pro- 
hibited. Should the want of uniformity affect elements essential to 
the determination of the duties, the latter will be regulated by the 
declaration "carrying the highestrate among the disagreeing invoices." 

Such faults are tolerated in the cases following: 

First. When they have been rectified by written explanations on 
the margin of the documents before taking out the consular certificate. 

Second. When, notwithstanding the corrections, the several copies 
of the same document agree. 

Third. When the interlineations, erasures, etc., relate to points hav- 
ing no bearing upon the question of duties. 

V. When the same package contains goods paying different duties, 

^ By net weight is understood the real weight of the merchandise, without the imme- 
diate coverings {u...ias), packages, or wrappings. 

By legal weight is understood the weight of the goods, including only the imme- 
diate coverings, wrappings, vessel, cardboard, wood, or tin in which they may come 
inside of the outer box, which serves as the general receptacle. When goods taxed 
on the legal weight have no immediate covering, but come loose in an outside box, 
the intrinsic weight of the goods shall be considered the legal weight. In ascertain- 
ing the legal weight no account must be taken of the straw or shavings with which 
the packages may be packed in the outside case, nor of the weight of the latter. 

By gross weight is understood the weight of the merchandise with all its cases and 
wrappings inside and outsiae, without allowance for fillings, nettings, or hoops. 
When a package contains several articles taxed on the gross weight, the custom- 
house will apportion the tax among them according to their respective legal weights. 
Articles taxed on the gross weight shall pay on the total weight of the merchandise 
when they come without wrappings or packings, or contained in cases which are 
accessible. 

When fabrics having fringes are dutiable on the square meter, the measurement 
shall 'nclude such fringes. If they are dutiable according^ to weight the weight 
mus include that of the fringes. ' ^'^' 

1 q-or.,- 



MEXICO. 239 

including some paying on the gross weight, shippers must declare in 
the invoice, aside from the total weight of the package, the legal 
weight of each article contained therein, in order to arrive at the 
proper distribution of the gross weight. The declaring of the legal 
weight must be done without prejudice to the legal weight, piece, pair, 
thousand, or measures of the other goods not taxed on the gross 
weight. 

VI. Invoices of packages containing only samples do not need con- 
sular certification. The invoices need only declare the vessel on which 
they are shipped, name of consignee, port of destination, mark, num- 
ber, quantit}^, and class of packages, gross weight of each, and generic 
designation of the kind of samples. 

Failure to comply with the foregoing will incur a fine not exceeding 
f 5 for each package. 

VII. Shippers of goods must present for certification, before the 
sailing of the vessel, four copies of each invoice to the Mexican con- 
sul, consular or commercial agent residing in the place of shipment or 
in the port where the vessel is loading. Three copies must be left in 
the consulate, and the copy with certificate and receipt attached, which 
the Mexican ofiicial will deliver, is to be retained. This copy with 
the consular receipt attached shippers must transmit to the consignees 
of the goods. 

VIII. In localities where there is no Mexican consul or consular 
agent, shippers will only make out invoices in triplicate, conforming 
otherwise with the foregoing provisions; transmitting on the same 
day, by registered mail, one copy to the Department of the Treasury 
and another to the collector of customs at the port of destination. 

Shippers must require from the postmaster the necessary receipts, 
which must be forwarded to the consignee at the port of destination. 
There is no deviation from this requirement, and in default of an 
invoice with consular certificate or registered mail receipt, which must 
be presented by the consignee at the custom-house, is punishable by a 
fine in double the amount of duties on the goods imported. 

IX. Invoices should be written in Spanish; but they will be admitted 
if written in any other well-known tongue, when shippers are unac- 
quainted with the ofiicial language of the Republic. 

X. Consignees of imported merchandise are responsible before the 
law for an}^ infractions of the regulations by the carriers or shippers 
thereof. 

XI. Packages should have only one mark and number. Should 
packages have marks or numbers other than those shown by the con- 
sular invoice and manifest the consignee will be fined $1 for each 
package so marked or numbered. Firm names or factory addresses 
uniformly stamped on packages will not be considered as violatiyS of 
this regulation, p^' ided such initials, figures, and numbers are tb^se 
by which each pact^i^^ may be distinguished from the rest. 



240 MEXICO. 

XII. Live stock ^ shipments to Mexico must be governed by the 
provisions following: 

First. The shipper must appear before the Mexican consul stationed 
at the point from which the shipment is to be made expressing his 
intention to make the same. 

Second. The consul must secure a veterinary expert who, at the 
expense of the shipper, must examine the live stock in question and 
issue the proper health certificate. 

Third. This certificate will be viseed by the said consul and should 
accompany the consular invoice to be presented at the custom-house of 
entry. 

Fourth. On the live stock being eptered at the custom-house the 
collector will designate an expert veterinary to examine the stock at 
the expense of the shipper and issue his certificate. 

Sixth. If the stock is in a healthy condition it will be dispatched and 
delivered. If, on the other hand, it is diseased and the form of ail- 
ment is sufficiently proved the collector will decline to dispatch the 
stock and will notify the proper authority in order that the stock may 
be immediately sent out of the country, in which case no duties will 
be levied. 

XIII. Fresh-meat shipments to Mexico will be regulated by the 
same provisions as apply to live-stock importations save that the vet- 
erinary expert must examine the beeves before and after killing, and 
the meat must be shipped in refrigerators or so preserved physically 
or chemically that there will be no change in its condition. The meats 
on their introduction are subject to inspection by the Board of Health, 
at the expense of the importer. 

Small shipments of fresh meat intended for the frontier settlements 
need not be shipped in refrigerators or otherwise preserved, should the 
collectors of customs deem it unnecessary. 

XIV. For the certification of the documents which, masters of 
vessels and shippers of goods must present, consuls will charge as 
follows: 

1. For certifying ship's manifest conveying goods to the Eepubhc $10. 00 

2. For certifying manifest of ship in ballast 4. 00 

3. For certifying each set of invoices : 

If the value of the goods declared in the invoice does not exceed $100 1. 00 

If the value exceeds $100 but not $1,000 4.00 

For every excess of $500 or fraction thereof 1. 00 

4. For certificates of any kind to masters or shippers 2. 00 

5. When said last-named certificates are requested in duplicate, triplicate, 

etc., for each extra copy 1.00 

6. For certifying to errors in invoices, each set 2. 00 

7. For certifying to each set of permits to import through frontier custom- 
houses 25 

^Horses, sheep, goats, mules, and asses pay duty per head; cattle and hogs by 
M'eight. 



MEXICO. 241 

Consuls or consular agents before issuing the certificate will require 
the affirmation or oath, according to the law of the country where 
made, of the manufacturer or seller to the effect that the value given 
the goods in the invoice is the true value. This oath must be sub- 
scribed on the margin of a copy of the invoice of sale. 

XV. Samples intended to make known the goods they represent 
are entitled to certain privileges, as follows: 

Pieces of cloth fabrics not exceeding 20 centimeters (71 inches) in 
length, and which may include the whole width of the cloth, and all 
articles which by reason of not being complete are useless for sale are 
admitted free. 

Samples of complete articles, such as manufactures of any kind, 
hardware, dry goods, handkerchiefs, shawls, hosiery, shirts, etc., must 
either pay the corresponding duties or be rendered unsalable by cut- 
tings or perforations. 

When dry goods or hardware sample cases contain complete articles 
paying different duties, and the weight of each class can not be deter- 
mined, the whole case will pay the rate attachable to the highest duty- 
paying article contained therein. 

Samples of complete articles an importer may be interested in pre- 
serving for reexporting may be admitted duty free, provided the 
collector is satisfied he can identify the articles when exported; but 
the collector will require a bond in double the amount of the duties, 
giving the party in interest up to six months time within which to 
reexport the articles through the same custom-house. 

If the interested party shall present himself within the time men- 
tioned to pay the duties corresponding to the articles, they will be 
received; but if these are not reexported within said term the bond 
will be forfeited. 

The owner of samples desiring to export them through a custom- 
house other than that of entry must secure the permission of the 
Department of the Treasury. 

XVI. Passengers landing at Mexican ports must show their baggage 
to the custom-house officer having its inspection in charge, and should 
they bring small quantities of articles for gifts or personal use which 
are dutiable they must make the fact known to the officer before the 
baggage is opened. 

XVII. Passengers bringing with them, either in their baggage or 
separately, merchandise the duties on which exceed |100 are bound to 
declare them in a consular invoice, conforming to the regulations for 
imports of merchandise. All articles which because of their class or 
quantity are not deemed to be of personal use are considered as 
merchandise. 

XVIII. The following are considered as passengers' baggage and 
are duty free: 

651a 16 



242 MEXICO. 

First. Personal apparel, if not excessive, the collectors being judges 
of the amount in view of the passengers' circumstances. 

Second. Articles worn, or of personal use, such as jewelry, watch, 
chain, cane, etc., and one or two firearms, with their accessories and 
up to 100 cartridges. 

Third. Instruments and tools the most necessary and indispensable 
for the exercise of a profession or trade, if the passengers are profes- 
sors, artists, or artisans, in the understanding that pianos, organs, or 
barrel organs, and materials and accessories for the installation of 
laboratories, studios, or offices are excluded. 

Fourth. Ninety-nine cigars, 40 packages of cigarettes, and half a 
kilogram of snufi' or chewing tobacco, if the passengers are adults. 

XIX. Should the passengers be artists of an opera, dramatic, circus, 
or other company, besides the foregoing articles they maj^ introduce 
free the costumes and scenery which form part of their baggage, being 
bound to reexport the same within one year. 

XX. Passengers bringing with them any household furniture, will 
be allowed a rebate of duty corresponding to the depreciation of value 
in consequence of its use. 

XXL Should passengers declare that their baggage includes nothing 
but articles of personal use and the inspection show that they bring 
dutiable merchandise, such merchandise shall pay double duties. 

XXII. Most of the maritime custom-houses have warehouses 
attached, where goods may be left on deposit, which is limited to one 
month if the goods are perishable, or not longer than six months if 
otherwise. If not withdrawn within fifteen daj^s after the expiration 
of the six months, the goods are sold at public auction. 

The warehouse charges are as follows: For the first and second 
month, 1 cent daily for each 100 kilograms or fraction thereof; for 
the third and fourth month, 2 cents daily for each 100 kilograms or 
fraction thereof; for the fifth and sixth months, 3 cents daily for each 
100 kilograms or fraction thereof. 

Shippers should bear in mind that the weights and measurements of 
articles should be given in the metric system; that articles should be 
packed in cases or containers, according to the class of weight upon 
which duties are assessed; that is, goods upon which duties are charged 
on the gross weight should not be packed with goods paying by net or 
legal weight, or vice versa. 

By treaty provisions between the United States and Mexico vessels 
of the former country are on the same footing in Mexican ports as 
Mexican vessels as regards tonnage, harbor, and light dues, pilotage,^ 
salvage, and all local charges. The coasting trade is, however, 
reserved by either nation for its own vessels. United States vessels 

^ Pilotage is not obligatory under the laws of Mexico. 



MEXICO. 243 

may import into Mexican ports merchandise the growth or manufac- 
ture of the United States on the same terms as if they were imported 
in Mexican bottoms. The duties are to be no higher or other than 
those levied on similar merchandise the growth or manufacture of the 
most-favored nation. In United States ports Mexican vessels and 
merchandise are accorded the same privileges enjoyed by American 
vessels and merchandise in Mexican ports. 

Where there are no Mexican vessels to carry on the coastwise trade 
foreign sailing and steam vessels are permitted to engage in such 
trade. When the quantity of merchandise prepared for shipment 
from one port to another of the Republic is so small that it would not 
suffice to fill a Mexican vessel its shipment upon a foreign steamer is 
allowed. 

On May 1, 1896, the Mexican Constitution was amended so as to 
abolish the alcahala or interstate customs duties, which it inherited 
from Spain, and which had for so many years acted as a stumbling 
block to the internal trade of the country. 

By decree of May 12, 1896, a stamp duty of 7 per cent, collectible 
on and after ivXj 1, 1896, was levied on the amount of import duties 
payable by foreign imported goods. 

A decree bearing the same date also abolished the portazgo or 
octroi duties in the Federal District, and another great stride forward 
was taken. This same date saw another decree promulgated — one 
establishing an import custom-house in the city of Mexico, as auxiliary 
to the frontier and maritime custom-houses, connected by rail with the 
capital. 

On November 12, 1897, the President of the United States issued a 
proclamation suspending tonnage dues on Mexican vessels. 

The Mexican Free Zone, according to an official description fur- 
nished by the Mexican authorities,^ is as follows : 

"There is understood by the term 'Free Zone' a strip of national 
territory which, covering all the northern frontier of the Republic in 
the States of Tamaulipas, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Sonora, and the Ter 
ritory of Lower California, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific 
Ocean, extends in a latitudinal direction 20 kilometers (12.42 miles) 
from the frontier border toward the interior. 

"It was established in the beginning from Matamoros to Monterey, 
Laredo (to-day Laredo of Tamaulipas) by Col. Ramon Guerra, gov- 
ernor of the State of Tamaulipas, by means of a decree dated the 17th 
of March, 1858, which was sactioned by President Juarez the 30th of 
July, 1861. 

"The tariff of the 1st of January, 1872, left it in existence, and the 

^ Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States, No. 12, series 
1898-99, Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department, 1899, p. 3182. 



244 



MEXICO. 



tariff of 1885 caused its extension to all the frontier. The general 
ordinance of custom-houses of 1887, as well as that of 1891, which is 
now in force, preserved it, although with modifications of importance, 
especially as regards collection of duties. 

"The franchise granted the Free Zone consisted, in the beginning, 
in not levying any dut}^ upon imported articles; afterwards, however, 
some small duties, purely local, were established, and the ordinance of 
1887 established as a fixed basis 3 per cent on the value of the duties 
according to tariff^ — a basis which was raised to 10 per cent by the 
ordinance of 1891. By subsequent decrees the duties were raised 1| 
per cent for the municipality and 7 per cent for stamps for internal 
revenue, the result of all this being that the merchandise introduced 
into the Free Zone from abroad now paid 18i per cent upon the 
importation duties according to tariff. 

'^For the better comprehension of this explanation, there is here 
given an example of the duties paid b}^ a certain article, according to 
its destination, either to the interior of the countr}^ or to the Free 
Zone. 

"Let us suppose a bale of cotton weighs 100 kilograms (220.46 
pounds). If destined for the interior of the country, it will pay 
duties as follows: 



Duties. 



Description. 



100 kilograms (220.46 pounds) at 7 cents (3 cents) 

2 per cent for liarbor works 

li per cent (municipal). 

7 per cent (revenue stamps) 

Total 



a The reductions in this report are made on the basis of the valuation of the Mexican dollar given 
April 1, 1898, by the Director of the United States Mint— i. e., |1 Mexican = 44.4 cents. 

"If that bale is destined to the Free Zone, it must pay — 




Description. 



Duties. 



Mexican 
currency. 



United 

States 

currencv. 



10 per cent on 87 

li per cent on $7 (municipal 
7 per cent on $7 (stamps) . . . 

Total 



SO. 70 
.10 
.49 



1.29 



MEXICO. 245 

"If this same bale, after having been imported to the Free Zone, is 
shipped to the interior of the country, it must pay, in addition to the 
above — 



Description. 



Mexican 
currency. 



Duties. 



United 

States 

currency. 



90 per cent on 87 (13.10) 

2 per cent for harbor works. 

Total 



S6.30 
.14 



12.79 
.06 



6.44 



2.85 



which is equal to the amount charged for importation of the bale 
directly to the interior ($7. 73 =$3. 42). 

"It must be noticed that not all the merchandise that enters through 
the custom-houses of the north is destined for the Free Zone, and 
that much that is primarily imported for consumption there is after- 
wards shipped to the interior. 

"The greater part of the merchandise that enters through Laredo, 
Tamaulipas, Porfirio Diaz (Eagle Pass), City of Juarez (El Paso, Tex.), 
and Nogales, Sonora, pays at once the entire duties and is forwarded 
immediately to the interior. 

"The custom-house of Matamoros has little importation, and those 
of Guerrero, Camargo, Mier, Boquillas, Lasabe, Tiguana, and La 
Morita have practically none. 

' ' The greater part of the goods imported by these last is consumed 
by the inhabitants of the towns named and their jurisdictions, and all 
are United States goods, such as hams, potatoes, lard, butter, beer, 
matches, coarse cloth material, etc. 

"The principal cities found in the Free Zone are Matamoros, 
Camargo, Mier, Guerrero, Laredo City, Porfirio Diaz (Piedras 
Negras), City of Juarez (Paso del Norte), and Nogales. The others 
are small towns which have little commercial importance. The total 
population of the Free Zone could hardly be estimated to be 80,000 
or 100,000 people. 

"In the Free Zone there are no industries worth mentioning, nor is 
it possible to establish any, for the general ordinance of the custom- 
house permits the introduction to the interior of the country of indus- 
trial products manufactured in the Free Zone only on payment of the 
regular duties, which are equal to those levied on foreign goods of the 
same kind. Exportation to the United States of America would be 
difiicult on account of its protective tariff, and the consumption in the 
Free Zone would not be sufficient to sustain industrial establishments 
of any importance, especially as not a single railroad exists, and trans- 
portation of merchandise is carried on in certain parts over difiicult 
roads by means of the rudimentary system of ox carts. 



246 



MEXICO. 



"According to statistics of the frontier custom-houses, the duties 
on importations into the Free Zone of European merchandise, etc., 
during the two years of 1895-96 and 1896-97 were: 



Custom-house. 



Amount of 

duties calculated 

as a whole. 



Mexican 
currency. 



United 

States 

currency. 



Mier 

Guerrero 

Boquillas 

Tiguana 

La Morita 

Camargo 

Laredo, Tamaulipas. . 

Ciudad Juarez 

Ciudad Porflrio Diaz. 

Nogales 

Matamoros 



Total in two years 
Average per year . 



$262,326 
100, 774 
80,914 
83, 182 
80, 643 


$116,473 
44,744 
36,126 
36,933 
35,805 


607,839 
303, 919 


269,881 
134,940 



"Of this amount at least 33iper cent can be calculated to have 
been shipped later into the interior, paying the regular duties; this 
would amount to 1101,306.50 ($44,980), leaving as a balance consumed 
in the Free Zone 1202,613 (|89,960)." 



CHAPTER XII. 

FINANCIAL ORGANIZATION— PUBLIC DEBT. 

The financial question in Mexico has been one of the most perplexing 
problems that ever presented itself to the statesman's mind. From the 
moment that the country emerged from its centuries of colonial rule it 
was confronted with the gravest economic difficulties. The tributary 
system, based upon monopoly and exclusive privileges, which had pre- 
vailed before the yoke of Spain was thrown off, could not be continued 
under the conditions obtaining among an emancipated and autonomic 
people. Without any previous experience, they were compelled to 
change, improvise, and try new systems. The many revolutions and 
consequent changes in the administrations served but to add to the 
perplexity of the situation, and it has required a high order of ability 
to bring the finances of the country to their present condition. 

In 1823 the Mexican Government issued paper money, with results 
so deplorable that no administration has since ventured to repeat the 
experiment. The many difficulties which have beset the other Ameri- 
can Republics through depreciated paper money have thus been avoided 
by Mexico. 

The revenues of the Republic are subdivided into four groups or 
classes, which in 1898-99 yielded as follows:^ 

I. Foreign-commerce taxes. 

Import duties $26, 443, 847. 86 

Export duties 1,066,769.78 

2 per cent for port improvements 525, 384. 60 

Special port taxes _ - 26, 597. 71 

Tonnage, light-house, and warehouse dues 174, 191. 76 

Sailing licenses 1, 216. 00 

Pilots' and harbor masters' dues 156, 718. 54 

Health office receipts 69, 063. 42 

Consular dues 260,324.00 

Consular and diplomatic certificates abroad 8, 259. 40 

Veracruz shelter {cobertizo) dues 6, 107. 58 

Total 28,738,480.45 

^ Eeport of the Secretary of the Treasury to Chamber of Deputies, 1898-99. 

247 



248 



MEXICO. 



//. Interior Federal taxes. 

Stamp tax $23,178,587.68 

Embracing — 

Regular stamps $8, 193, 970. 68 

Federal tax 6, 091, 149. 36 

7 per cent on imports 1, 971, 144. 21 

Mining tax 684, 479. 16 

3 per cent on gold and silver 2, 293, 778. 90 

Real-estate tax 14, 284. 00 

Manutactured tobacco 1, 395, 212. 17 

Spirits 895,577.89 

Cotton yarn and fabrics 1, 525, 958. 05 

Miscellaneous, fines, etc 113, 033. 26 

Mintage dues and charges 1, 410, 756. 96 

Patent and trade-mark dues 6, 090. 00 

Total 24, 595, 434. 64 

III. Interior, district and territorial taxes. 

Direct taxes on real estate, professions, patent rights, flour, and 

pulque $2, 799, 303. 66 

Inheritance tax 159, 148. 61 

Minor taxes 107. 74 

Total 2, 958, 555. 01 

IV. Public service and minor sources. 

Postal service $1, 513, 402. 19 

Telegraph service - 980, 715. 44 

Tehuantepec Railroad 227, 437. 00 

Lottery, fines, etc 1, 124, 688. 11 

Total . . 3, 846, 742. 74 

These figures show a grand total of $60,139,212.84 for the period 
under consideration. 

A resume of the revenues of the Republic from 1894-95 to 1898-99 
gives the following figures: 



Group. 


1894-95. 


1895-96. 


1896-97. 


1897-98. 


1898-99. 


First 


819,870,987.80 
17, 599, 608. 22 
3,378,814.48 
"3,096,288.55 


123,658,692.61 

20, 418, 848. 54 

3,357,611.81 

3,086,317.46 


$23,639,580.91 

21,589,407.27 

2,705,761.11 

3,565,879.46 


$23,284,989.17 

22,925,702.31 

2, 794, 458. 41 

3, 692, 834. 66 


$28,738,480.45 

24,695,434.64 

2,958,555.01 

3, 846, 742. 74 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 






Total 


43, 945, 699. 05 


50,521,470.42 


51,500,628.75 


52,697,984.55 


60,139,212.84 





MEXICO. 



249 



The estimated expenditures fol* the year 1898-99 were as follows: 

Legislative power - - $1,019,242.50 

Executive power . , 82, 468. 75 

Judicial power 449,450.80 

Department of Foreign Eelations - - - 540, 647. 80 

Department of Government 3, 685, 516. 25 

Department of Justice and Public Instruction 2, 345, 311. 05 

Department of Promotion - 745, 626. 86 

Department of Communications and Public Works 3, 652, 111. 04 

Department of Treasury and Public Credit 26, 155, 716. 90 

Department of War and Navy 11, 996, 356. 24 

Total . - - 52, 672, 448. 19 

Additional legislation increased certain appropriations and reduced 
others, the total increase being estimated at $4,590,050,82, and the 
decrease at $214,756.12, leaving a net increase of $4,375,294.70; thus 
aggregating a total appropriation for public expenditures of 
$57,047,742.89. The sum of $3,430,328.48 was not used, however; 
actual expenses being thus reduced to $53,617,414.46, of which amount 
$117,872.52 was still unpaid into the Treasury at the end of the fiscal 
year, so that the net total of expenditures reached the sum of 
$53,499,541.94. The balance remaining to the credit of the Government 
is therefore shown as follows: 

Eevenues, as stated $60, 139, 212. 84 

Net expenditures 53, 499, 541. 94 



Balance 6, 639, 670. 90 

Taking as a basis the year 1894-95, which was the first to show a 
surplus after the financial crisis of 1891, the following figures show, 
in round numbers, the state of the Treasury up to and including the 
year 1898-99: 



Year. 


Receipts. 


Expendi- 
tures. 


Surplus. 


1894^95 


$43, 946, 000 
50,521,000 
50,501,000 
52, 698, 000 
60,139,000 


$41,372,000 
45,070,000 
48,330,000 
51,815,000 
53,499,000 


$2, 573, 000 


1895-96. . . 


5, 454, 000 


1896-97 


3, 170, 000 


1897-98 . ... 


883, 000 
6, 640, 000 


1898-99 







The reserve of cash held in the Treasury as the result of accumulated 
surpluses amounted on June 30, 1899, to $4,856,000 in gold and 
$17,824,000 in silver; reducing the gold at the rate of foreign exchange 
ruling on the date mentioned, the cash reserve amounted to $27,536,000 
in silver, the currency of the country. The large surplus shown for 
the financial year 1898-99 was due mainly to the heavy increase in 
customs duties, though the internal revenues also showed a notable 
increase. 

The budget for 1899-1900 estimated the revenues of the Republic 
for the year, in round numbers, at $54,913,000 and the expenditures 



250 MEXICO. 

at $54,886,000, leaving a balance of $37,000 to the credit of the Treas- 
ury. For 1900-01 the revenues arc estimated at $58,23-1,000 and the 
expenditures $58,009,082.92, the surplus for the year being, therefore, 
$224,917.08. The estimated receipts for 1900-01 are classified as 
follows: 

First group $26, 868, OOq 

Second group 24, 531, 000 

Third group 3, 067, 000 

Fourth group 3, 768, 000 

Total 58, 234, 000 

The two main points in this estimate are the abolition of the coffee 
tax, for the relief of the planters, and the lease of the Tehuantepec 
Railway, the Government proprietorship of which had affected 
adversely both receipts and expenditures.^ An arrangement was 
made whereby the contractors should complete the line and the port 
works at Coatzacoalcos and Salina Cruz, in return for the receipts of 
the road during fifty years. 

The estimated expenditures show an increase of $3,057,060.81 in 
all branches except the legislative and judicial, while there is a decrease 
of $1,076,607.55 in the item of the public debt, the result of the suc- 
cessful conversion of the foreign debt from a 6 to a 5 per cent basis. 
The net increase is therefore $1,980,453.32 as compared with the pre- 
ceding year. 

The public debt of Mexico is represented by bonds of differing 
rates of interest and payable in gold or silver, according to designation. 

According to Romero,^ the history of the Mexican foreign debt 
begins in 1825, very soon after the independence of the country was 
established, when two loans were contracted in London, both for 
<£10,000,000, the interest on which, owing to the disturbed conditions 
prevailing in the Republic, was not promptly paid, the bonds conse- 
quently falling to a low nominal price. In 1851, after the war with 
the United States, that debt was refunded into a new bond issue, the 
interest on which was reduced from 5 to 3 per cent. The internal 
affairs of the country not permitting the payment of the interest on 
these bonds, in 1888 a new adjustment was made, by which gold-bear- 
ing bonds at 6 per cent were issued, the interest on which has since 
been paid promptly, the bonds reaching par. 

From 1849 to 1856 bonds were issued to pay claims of English, 
French, and Spanish subjects, under certain conventions, and such 
bonds were subsequently exchanged at differing rates for the 6 per 
cent gold bonds of the foreign debt. 

In 1888 another loan was negotiated in London for £3,000,000, at 5 

^The receipts of this line in 1898-99 amounted to $227,437, the working expenses 
being $700,000. 
■^Mexico and the United States, New York, 1898, p. 129. 



MEXICO. 251 

per cent, for the construction of the Tehuantepec Railroad. The sub- 
sidies granted to railway companies were payable in siJver with a per- 
centage of the import duties, but as they amounted to a considerable 
sum and were a heavy drain on the national treasury, the Govern- 
ment, in 1890, contracted another loan in London, on a gold basis, at 6 
per cent interest, to be applied to the subsidies due most of the rail- 
way companies up to that date. 

In 1850 a domestic or interior debt was contracted, covered by bonds 
bearing interest payable in silver at 3 and 5 per cent. There was, 
besides, other indebtedness of various kinds, growing out of loans and 
other obligations entered into at a time when the Government reve- 
nues were not sufficient for its expenditures. All these debts have 
been consolidated into new bonds, bearing interest at 3 and 5 per cent, 
payable in silver, and the railway subsidies remaining unpaid from 
the proceeds of the loan of 1890 have been met by bonds at 5 per 
cent, both interest and principal being paid in silver. 

Romero^ states that " it is very onerous to Mexico, when it is on a 
silver basis, to pay in gold the interest of its foreign debt, because we 
have to buy gold at current prices, and it costs us now double its cur- 
rent price. When silver was about 50 cents on the dollar, as compared 
with gold, 6 per cent interest of our foreign debt cost us 12 per cent, 
and of course the further silver is depreciated the greater will be the 
cost of paying the interest of our gold debt." President Diaz gives, in 
his report of November 30, 1896, the following data about the cost to 
the Mexican treasury of buying exchange to place in London the funds 
to pay the gold interest on the foreign debt: 

Fiscal year: 

1898-99 $729, 178. 17 

1890-91 2, 314, 477. 77 

1891-92 3, 225, 246. 77 

1892-93 - - - 5, 101, 223. 57 

The total amount of the Mexican debt on the 30th of June, 1896, 
was $203,225,067.34, as follows: 

Sterling Mexican debt $114, 675, 895. 49 

Payable in silver 88, 549, 111. 80 

In 1896-97 a third division of the debt was introduced under the 
name of floating debt, which, at the close of the fiscal year named, stood 
as follows: 

Debt payable in foreign coin at the rate of $5 per pound sterling. . . $108, 865, 528. 00 

Bonded debt payable in silver 91, 951, 573. 21 

Floating debt^ 1, 473, 696. 70 

Total 202, 290, 797. 91 

iOpuscit.,p. 130. 

^ The floating debt consists of credits and other certificates not presented for con- 
version, uncollected interest, and unpaid balances of former estimates. 



252 



MEXICO. 



At the end of the fiscal year 1897-98, the public debt, including uncol- 
lected interests, stood as follows: 

Foreign debt $109,509,544.00 

Mexican debt 103, 997, 703. 23 

Floating debt 1,401,808.63 

Total 214,809,055.86 

At the end of the fiscal year 1898-99 the debt, in detail, stood as 
follows: 



Debt. 



Principal. 



Uncollected 
interest. 



Total. 



Payable in foreign money at the rate of $5 per £1. 



Bonds of the loan of 1888 

Bonds of the loan of 1890 

Bonds of the loan of 1893 , 

Mortgage bonds of the Tehuantepec Rwy . 



Total foreign gold debt. 



Payable in silver. 

Interest-bearing bonds: 

Consolidated 3 per cent bonds 

Redeemable 5 per cent bonds- 
First series 

Second series 

Third series 

Monterey and Mexican Gulf Rwy. bonds 

Tula, Pachuca and Tampico Rwy. bonds 

Oaxaca Rwy.'s trunk line subsidy bonds 

Tonala wharf bonds 

Pachuca, Zacualtipdn and Tampico Rwy. bonds. . . 

Veracruz port bonds 

San Marcos and La Barra de Nautla Rwy. bonds 

Total silver bonds 

Noninterest-bearing bonds (floating debt): 

Balance certificates from July 1, 1882, to June 30, 
1894 

Uncollected certificates for railway construction . . 

Uncollected balances on budgets previous to 
July 1, 1895, redeemable, according to the law 
of Oct. 31, 1895 

Uncollected balances, payable wholly in cash, 
corresponding to the budgets from 1895-96 to 
1898-99 

Sundry balances, collection pending, in compli- 
ance with the adjustment of public debt 



Total uncollected balances and floating debt. . . 



150,041,900.00 
29, 296, 700. 00 
14, 745, 600. 00 
13, 365, 000. 00 



S803, 692. 50 
466, 992. 00 
225, 199. 50 



150, 845, 592. 50 
29, 763, 692. 00 
14, 970, 799. 50 
13,365,000.00 



107, 449, 200. 00 



1, 495, 884. 00 



108,945,084.00 



50, 225, 575. 00 

19, 832, 200. 00 

19, 780, 300. 00 

14,251,300.00 

140, 000. 00 

142, 000. 00 

9, 260, 000. 00 

7,000.00 

3, 000. 00 

25. 00 



113,641,400.00 



247, 522. 69 
219. 17 



105, 588. 53 

333,547.70 
266, 741. 12 



953, 619. 21 



831, 372. 70 

30, 294. 48 

33, 482. 50 

4. 967. 50 

1,080.00 



.75 
50.00 



.51,056,947.70 

19,862,494.48 

19,813,782.50 

14, 256, 267. 50 

141, 080. 00 

142, 000. 00 

9,260,000.00 

7,000.00 

3,000.00 

25.75 

50.00 



901,247.93 



114,542,647.93 



Foreign debt (gold) $108, 945, 084. 00 

Mexican debt (silver) 114, 542, 647. 93 

Floating debt 953, 619. 21 

Total 224, 441, 351. 14 

The debt proper — that is, not including the uncollected interest^ — for 
the years 1896-97, 1897-98, and 1898-99, stood as follows: 





1896-97. 


1897-98. 


1898-99. 


Gold bonds . 


$108,556,100.00 

91, 114, 325. 00 

1,473,696.70 


$107,995,600.00 

103, 118, 050. 00 

1,401,808.63 


$107, 449, 200. 00 




113,641,400.00 


Floating debt 


953, 619. 21 






Total 


201,143,121.70 


212, 515, 458. 63 


222,044,219.21 







MEXICO. 253 

In his report to Congress ^ (1898-99) the Secretary of the Treasury 
and Public Credit supplemented the statement of the debt with several 
remarks, showing in substance that the debt payable in foreign gold 
is represented by the value it would attain should the foreign rate of 
exchange be at par, the supposed value of $5 per pound sterling being 
the most approximate valuation. The floating debt is made up of 
credits which the parties interested have not collected or converted 
into other bonds according to the laws governing the public debt. 
The Federal Treasury has not among its floating debt a single " short- 
time " bond, either interest-bearing or not, issued since July, 1894, in 
payment of any claims. As to the uncollected or unclaimed interest 
on either the gold or silver debt, the respective amounts are deposited 
in the banks and banking houses in charge of said debts, those of the 
silver debt being placed in the National Bank, and those of the gold 
bonds of 1888, 1890, and 1893 with the firm of S. Bleichroeder, of 
Berlin. 

On June 30, 1899, the gold bonded debt showed a decrease of 
$646,400 as compared with the same date of the preceding year. The 
silver bonds of the 3 per cent consolidated debt, the 5 per cent 
redeemable debt of the first and second series, and the bonds of the 
Monterey and Mexican Gulf Railway, on the date in reference, 
showed a decrease of $619,960, while the decrease of the floating debt 
amounted to $448,189.42, a total decrease of $1,614,639.42 being thus 
indicated for 1899 as compared with 1898. This sum, which repre- 
sents the amortization of bonds during the fiscal year, was in reality 
larger, as the $646,400 (gold) paid on the foreign bonds represents 
nearly double that amount, by reason of the expense incurred for 
exchange and placement of funds ; so that the report quoted estimates 
the money spent in the reduction of the public debt in 1898-99 at 
more than $2,160,000. 

The only bonds whose circulation on June 30, 1899, was larger than 
on the same date of the preceding year were the 5 per cent redeemable- 
debt bonds, whose increase was $11,186,100, a new issue for that 
amount having been made during the year in order to foster the devel- 
opment of certain works of public utility, such as the port improve- 
ments of Veracruz and Tampico, to subsidize nine railroad companies, 
and also to replace the bonds of the Monterey Railroad. 

In the same month of June, 1899, negotiations were entered into, 
conducted by the Secretary of the Treasury in person, having for 
their object the conversion of the foreign gold debt, which culminated 
in the signing of a contract in Berlin, whereby J. P. Morgan & Co., 
of New York, J. S. Morgan & Co., of London, S. Bleichroeder, the 
Deutsche Bank, and the Dresden Bank of Berlin undertook the con- 

^ ' ' Nota remitiendo d, la Cdmara de Diputades del Congreso de la Union la cuenta 
del Erario Federal, ano economico 1898-99 " (p. 35). 



254 MEXICO. 

version of the entire foreign debt of the Republic of Mexico, viz: Six 
per cent loans of 1888, 1890, and 1893, and the 5 per cent Tehuantepec 
loan, heretofore issued in London and Berlin, into a 5 per cent consoli- 
dated external gold loan due within forty -five years at par by semiannual 
drawings, which may be increased after the year 1909, the first one to 
take place in June, 1900, or by purchase in the market if same can be 
made under par. Principal and interest of the bonds payable in gold 
in Germany, London, Amsterdam, Berlin, or New York, in the last 
city at the rate of |4.85 per pound sterling. Bonds to be issued in 
denominations of from £20 to £1,000, at the option of the subscriber. 
The bonds are secured by a special hypothecation of 62 per cent of 
the import and export duties of the Republic of Mexico. The annual 
interest and sinking fund requirement for the entire external debt of 
Mexico, as consolidated by the new issue of bonds, is about $6,200,000 
gold, or, at present exchange, about $13,000,000 of silver, the total 
amount of the issue being £22,700,000, of which £5,000,000 are reserved 
for allotment in the United States and in Holland. The issue in Eng- 
land and Germany at the present time will be limited in favor of 
holders of the existing bonds, who will be given the right of conversion. 

Commenting upon this operation "El Mundo,"^ a Mexican journal, 
says: 

"The Mexican Government, with 6 per cent gold securities, quoted 
at 102 and 103, and 5 per cent silver at 99 and 99^, has succeeded in 
placing, on the best markets of Europe, a 5 per cent loan, over one- 
half of it (£13,000,000) at 96 flat and the balance at 97i. According 
to this arrangement the Mexican Government will receive: 

For the £13,000,000 at 96 £12, 480, 000 

For the £9, 700,000 at 97i optional 9, 423, 250 

Total 21, 913, 250 

Less 1 per cent commission on £22,700,000. 227, 000 



Balance 21, 686, 250 

"This, being estimated at the rate of $5, gold, per pound sterling, is 
equivalent to $108,431,250, gold, but as our debt, including the mort- 
gage loan on the Isthmus Railroad, amounts at present to $107,286,100, 
gold, there will be a surplus of $1,145,150, gold, to meet the necessary 
expenses connected with the loan and the further necessities of the 
Treasury." 

On the 6th of July, 1899, President Diaz issued a decree bearing 
upon the subject, stating that by virtue of the authorization granted 
to the Executive by the law of June 2, 1899, for the conversion of 
the Mexican public gold debt, and in accordance with the terms of 
the contract signed at Berlin, from the 1st of September following, 

^ ' ' Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos — Sus progresos en veinte anos de paz — 1877- 
1897"— E. de Zayas Enriquez— New York, p. 252. 



MEXICO. 255 

62 per cent of the duties which, according to law, are payable in the 
maritime and frontier custom-houses of the Republic, without regard 
to the place where the merchandise is cleared, shall be paid only in 
the special certificates referred to in article 3 of the decree.^ 

Cash shall not be accepted in the payment of these duties unless 
there are no certificates at the place where they are to be paid. In 
this case the custom-house shall hold the amounts at the disposal of 
the National Bank of Mexico, from which it shall receive equivalent 
certificates in exchange. Anyone disobeying this rule shall be obliged 
to pay twice the amount that was not paid in certificates, half of this 
fine being payable in the certificates, and the other half in money, 
which shall go to the informant. 

The General Treasury is to deliver to the National Bank the certifi- 
cates as they are issued, and to open a special account with the bank 
under this head. In order that the certificates may be admissible to 
the custom-houses, they must bear a special mark of the bank and 
of the agent intrusted by the bank with their sale at the place where 
they are receivable. 

As long as all the outstanding bonds of the loans of 1888, 1890, and 
1893 have not been converted nor called in and paid off in cash, the 
National Bank of Mexico will, in preference to anything else, set aside 
from the proceeds of the 62 per cent certificates such sums as may be 
necessary to meet the interest and sinking fund service of the bonds 
that have not been converted nor called in for payment in cash, with 
the understanding that the sum applicable in a year to each of said 
loans shall be reduced in proportion to the amount of bonds converted. 
The balance of the 62 per cent assignment shall be applied to the serv- 
ice of the 5 per cent consolidated foreign debt of 1899 until, through 
conversion or payment in cash of all the bonds of the three loans above 
mentioned, the whole of said 62 per cent assignment shall be applied 
exclusively to the service of the new debt. 

From the 1st of September, 1899, the certificates which, according 
to decrees still in force, are received in payment of a portion of the 
import and export duties, shall be replaced, for the purpose set forth 
by the special certificates created by the decree, unless, in the event 
of the 6 per cent loan not having been converted, either wholly or in 
part, by the 1st of September, other arrangements are made by a sub- 
sequent decree. 

The certificates referred to must be sold for silver and at par. Their 

^Aet. III. As provided by Article I, the General Treasury of the Federation shall 
at once issue the certificates in question, which shall be of the form and have the 
special marks to be determined by the Finance Department, and shall be divided 
into four series: The first of the value of ten dollars, the second of fifty, the third 
of one hundred, and the fourth of five hundred. Issues of each series shall be made 
gradually as determined by the Department of Finance. 



256 



MEXICO. 



sale above par shall be visited with a fine of three times the excess 
collected. 

The receipts of the Mexican Treasury from July 1, 1881, to June 30, 
1899, were as follows: 



Year ending June 30— 


Receipts. 


Year ending June 30— 


Receipts. 


1882 ... 


130,466,093.74 
32,850,931.25 
37,621,065.29 
30,660,434.24 
28, 980, 895. 76 
32,126,509.07 
40, 962, 045. 23 
34,374,783.32 
38,566,601.69 


1891 


S37,391,804.99 


1883 


1892 


37, 474, 879. 20 


1884 


1893 


42, 813, 4.55. 71 


1885 


1894 


40, 211, 747. 13 


1886 


1895 


43, 945, 699. 05 


1887 . 


1896 


50,521,707.42 


1888 


1897 


51,.500,628.75 


1889 . -.. 


1898 


52, 697, 984. 55 


1890 


1899 


60, 139, 212. 84 









The amount of cash on hand on June 30, 1899, to the credit of the 
Government in the several depositories was $22,679,925.10, showing a 
gain of $5,863,214.67 over the preceding year. This amount was 
represented in gold and silver as follows: Gold, $4,855,677.48 and 
$17,824,247.62 in silver; while for the preceding year the stock was 
$4,472,621.49 for gold and $12,344,088.94 for silver, a gain in favor 
of 1899 of $5,863,214.67, thus showing an increase in the gold stock of 
$383,655.99 and in the silver of $5,480,158.68. The gold stock mainly 
represents the amounts subject to the payment of the loans payable in 
gold, the remainder being at the mint, the financial agency in London, 
and in the hands of the diplomatic and consular agents of the Republic. 

Reducing the gold stock to silver, the cash on hand at the end of 
1898-99 stands as follows: 

Gold stock, as stated |4, 855, 677. 48 

Premium at the rate of 24 pence per peso 4, 855, 677. 48 

Silver value of the gold on hand 9, 711, 354. 96 

Silver stock as stated 17, 824, 247. 62 

Total silver 27, 535, 602. 58 

Or a net gain of $5,596,616.15 in silver over the gold and silver stock 
of the preceding year, reduced to silver. 

The gold and silver stock on hand was placed as follows on the 30th 
of June, 1899: 

General Treasury $278, 024. 23 

Administrative Bureaus 2, 681, 671. 72 

Treasury dependencies 164, 424. 51 

Maritime and frontier custom-house 130, 640. 73 

Financial agency in London 53, 809. 54 

Legations and consulates 53, 670. 31 

Paymasters, disbursing officers, and agents 75, 528. 26 

Banks and banking houses 19, 242, 155. 80 

Total 22,679,925.10 



MEXICO. 257 

This amount was further divided as follows: 

Cash already appropriated $7, 032, 300. 52 

Cash at the disposal of the Government 15, 647, 624. 58 

This last amount represents the cash at the disposal of the Govern- 
ment, absolutely untrammeled by any claims, and speaks eloquently 
for the ability and statesmanship of the Secretary of Finance, Senor 
Jose Yves Limantour. 

In the report to Congress, already mentioned (1898-99), the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury gives the following statement of the assets and 
liabilities of the Government on June 30, 1899, not including the 
public debt: 

Assets $28,789,351.63 

Liabilities 5, 498, 781. 16 

Balance to nation's credit 23, 290, 570. 47 

Deducting from the assets the gold and silver stock, 122,679,925.10, 
plus the balances on certain obligations, the total assets will be 
$3,082,672.12, while the liabilities, not including the debt, minus the bal- 
ances on certain obligations ($3,026,854.41), amounted to $2,471,926.75, 
thus leaving a net balance of $610,645.37 in favor of the assets. The 
Secretary of the Treasury supplements this statement with certain 
remarks showing that the Federal Treasury is fully able to meet its 
liabilities, with the exception of the amount represented by the public 
debt. 

65lA 17 



CHAPTKR XIII. 

MINTS, CURRENCY, BANKS, AND BANKING. 

Since the enactment of the law of June 6, 1887, the production of 
gold and silver has greatly increased in the Republic, and it is due to 
this law that the latter metal has attained its present enormous output. 
The main objects of the law in reference were: The reduction of the 
cost of metal production; to relieve the mining industry as much as 
possible of the onerous taxes and obstacles which retarded its free 
development; to lower the cost of the principal raw materials required 
in the industrj'^, and also to attract capital. Further legislation, on 
June 6, 1892, gave a new impetus to mine production, the output of 
silver from 1886 to 1891 being valued at 1199,208,204, while from 1891 
to 1896 it aggregated $267,122,418. By the law of June 4, 1894, the 
Executive was authorized to grant concessions under certain condi- 
tions to those engaged in the exploitation of gold mines, this industry 
having increased its production from $920,702 in 1890-91 to 
$4,744,542 in 1894-96, and to $6,054,078 in 1895-96. This calculation 
is made on the basis of $20 silver per ounce of gold, which is the 
standard used in the Mexican statistical tables. It is claimed that these 
figures do not cover the true production of the gold districts, as 
almost all the exports of this metal are shipped clandestinely.^ 

Mints were established in Mexico in 1537, the custom being some- 
times followed of renting them to private individuals, who collected 
a mintage charge of nearly 4i per cent upon the amount of bullion 
coined. Until within six j^ears ago there were thirteen mints in the 
Republic, but as increased facilities of transportation have reduced 
the difiiculties attendant upon the carriage of the bullion from mine to 
mint, this number has been decreased to four, one being in the City of 
Mexico, one in Guanajuato, one in Zacatecas, and one in Culiacan. 
Besides these mints there are Federal assay offices situated at Aguasca- 
lientes, Alamos, Chihuahua, Durango, El Paso (Texas), Guadalajara, 
Hermosillo, Monterey, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi, Sierra Mojada, and 
Zacatecas. 

^"Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, etc.," Rafael de Zayas Enriquez, New York, 
p. 20. 

25§ 



MEXICO. 



259 



The receipts of precious metals at the Federal assay offices and 
mints from 1889-90 to 1898-99 were as follows : 





Pure silver, a 


Pure gold, a 




Kilograms. 


Grams. 


Value. 


Kilograms. 


Grams. 


Value. 


1889-90 


632,935 

632, 951 

712, 572 

772, 636 

886, 178 

981,222 

1,314,849 

1,342,931 

1,496,969 

1,417,216 


879 
795 
272 
696 
76 
111 
340 
298 
402 
194 


124,814,965.28 
24, 814, 782. 38 
28,096,084.85 
30, 383, 428. 66 
34,845,542.68 
38,934,191.75 
63,797,060.63 
54,946,033.97 
61. 248, 503. 08 
57,985,400.58 


1,464 
1,609 
2,470 
2,840 
3,381 
3,991 
6,289 
5,788 
5,712 
5,986 


619 
777 
897 

32 
733 
498 

93 
694 
426 
485 


8979,069.75 


1890-91 


1,089,702.32 


1891 92 


1,657,716.98 


1892-93 


1,902,296.43 


1893 94 


2,260,865.32 


1894 95 


2, 674, 278. 35 


1895 96 


4, 247, 759. 83 


1896 97 


3,909,782.42 


1897 98 


3,858,269.06 


1898-99 


4,043,373.70 







a From 1889 to 1895 silver was quoted at 139.109 per kilogram and from 1895 on at $40,915. 
quoted during the same periods at 1643.527 and $675,417 per kilogram respectively. 



Gold was 



The exports of these metals from the mints and assay offices of the 
Republic during the same period were as follows: 





Kilograms. 


Grams. 


Value. 




3,910,704 
29,705 


135 
125 


$160,311,249.27 




20, 064, 066. 03 






Total 


3,940,409 


260 


180, 375, 315. 30 







From colonial times until 1898-99 the total coinage is represented 
by the following figures: 



Prom— 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Total. 


1537 to 1897. . 


$126, 129, 460 
469,219 
716, 882 


$3,400,846,135 
21,427,057 
20, 184, 117 


$7,147,668 
31, 600 
10, 694 


$3, 534, 123, 263 


1897 to 1898 


21,917,876 


1898 to 1899 


20, 910, 693 






Total 


127,304,561 


3,442,457,309 


7,189,962 


3,576,951,832 





To the above figures should be added the copper coined by Viceroy 
Mendoza for $200,000, and $31,667.67 coined by Mr. Ayllon, thus 
making a grand total of $3,577,183,499.67. During the presidency of 
General Manuel Gonzalez nickel to the value of $4,000,000 was coined, 
but this was subsequently withdrawn from circulation. 

Under date March 27, 1897, the President issued a decree (No. 42) 
whereby gold and silver are subject to the following taxation: 

(1) Interior stamp tax at the rate of 3 per cent on the value of said 
metals. 

(2) Mintage dues at the rate of 2 per cent on the value of said 
metals. 

(3) Assay dues, in conformity with the tariff that the Department 
of the Treasury may promulgate. 



260 



MEXICO. 



(4) Smelting'-, refining^, and other dues as they ma}^ be decreed by 
the Treasury Department. 

The stamp and mintage dues as well as the assay dues will always 
be paid, whether the pieces are to be coined or whether the metals or 
substances are to be exported. The smelting dues are to be collected 
upon such pieces that, not being homogeneous, must be smelted in 
order to assaj^ them and estimate upon their value. The refining and 
other dues apply only to pieces to be coined. Foreign coins are 
exempted from the provisions of section 1, above mentioned, and will 
only be subject to the pa3^ment of coinage dues, as provided in sections 
3 and 4, above mentioned, when they are introduced into the mints to 
be coined. 

The present monetary system of Mexico is regulated by the law of 
November 28, 1867,^ which introduced the decimal monetary S3^stem 
in the country. The preamble of this law states its object to be to 
establish a uniform system of currency without making any essential 
modifications in the value of the monetar}- unit, which shall remain 
the silver dollar {peso). This dollar is to weigh 27.073281 grams, and 
be of a fineness of 0. 902 plus (0. 777 of 0. 001). The weight of this dollar 
is, expressed in grains troy, 417.79. The amount of pure silver in the 
dollar is 377.139 grains troy. The variation allowed at the mints in 
the weight is 750 grains either way for each $1,000, and the maximum 
for each dollar is 1^ grains. 

The weights of all the silver coins are given below: 



Silver coins, a 


Weight in 
grams. 


Equivalent 
in grains. 


SI 


27. 073281 
13. 536 

6.768 

2.707 

1.352 


417 79 


50-centavo 


208 90 


25-ceiitavo 


104 45 


10-centavo 


41 77 


5-centavo 


20 865 







a By a law passed in Deceraljer, 1897, the mints commenced, in January, 1898, to coin a new peso 
and a 20-centavo piece. The peso is of the same weight and fineness, but bears different inscriptions 
from those on the old S-real peso. A bronze ceniavo was created by decree of December 21, 1899, con- 
taining 95 parts of copper, 4 parts of tin, and 1 part of zinc. 



The fineness of gold coins is 0.875. 
are given in the following table: 



The denominations and weights 



Gold coins. 



Weight. 



85... 
*2. 50 



Grams. 
33.841 
16. 920 
8.460 
4.230 
1.692 



^ Leyes y disposiciones relativas a la Moneda Nacional — 1821-1899 — Secretan'a de 
Estado y del Despacho de Hacienda y Credito Publico — Mexico — 1900. 



MEXICO. 261 

The ratio of coinage is 16i to 1. 

Tliere seems to be practically no gold in circulation in the Republic, 
the best informed authorities estimating the amount between 175,000 
and $100,000. 

There are in the Republic 18 banks of issue, but their paper is not 
legal tender, it being covered by large deposits of coin. The Govern- 
ment issues no paper money and, as a rule, does not retain any specie 
in the Treasury vaults, the National Bank, which acts as depository, 
paying all warrants, etc. 

On June 30, 1899, the leading banking institutions of the country 
held in cash^ $48,361,213.55, while the amount of bills in circulation 
was $58,208,340.75, the authorized capital of these institutions being 
$55,360,000 and the unsubscribed capital $16,290,000. The general 
condition of these banks on the date in reference is shown as follows: 



Unsubscribed capital |16, 290, 000. 00 

Cash 48,361,213.55 

Bills receivable - - 69, 233, 714. 21 

Loans on personal property 22, 807, 662. 82 

Hypothecary loans 7, 170, 516. 54 

Loans on real estate - - 2, 592, 896. 67 

Public funds held by the banks 464, 240. 00 

Current debt or accounts 42, 960, 908. 63 

Furniture and fixtures 1, 083, 832. 11 

Total 210,964,984,53 

Liabilities. 

Authorized capital |55, 360, 000. 00 

Bills in circulation 58, 208, 340. 75 

Mortgage bonds in circulation 6, 546, 600. 00 

Sight deposits 1,552,272.49 

Other deposits . .^. 3, 122, 549. 46 

Current credit accounts 75, 765, 661. 70 

Increase of capital and reserve fund (provisional ) ^ 2, 503, 812. 50 

Reserve fund 4, 712, 615. 00 

Surplus fund 3, 193, 332. 63 

Total 210, 964, 984. 53 

^ By order of the Treasury Department, 1897, banks were forbidden to count as cash 
on hand notes of their own or other banks, so that the term ' ' cash on hand ' ' repre- 
sents actual specie. 

^ Bank of London and Mexico. 



262 



MEXICO. 



The following table shows the banks of issue of the Republic on 
June 30, 1899, their authorized capital, unsubscribed capital, cash on 
hand, and bills in circulation: 



Banks. 


Capital. 


Bills in circu- 
lation. 


Unsubscribed 
capital. 


Cash. 


Banco Nacional rto Mexico 


$20, 000, 000. 00 
10, 000, 000. 00 
5, 000, 000. 00 
1,500,000.00 

600,000.00 
1,250,000.00 

750, 000. 00 
1,000,000.00 

960, 000. 00 

600, 000. 00 
1, 500, 000. 00 
1,600,000.00 
1, 100, 000. 00 

500, 000. 00 

500,000.00 
2,000,000.00 

500. 000. 00 
6,000,000.00 


123, 211, 265. 00 
19,790,269.00 


S10,000,000.00 


124,748,366.46 

11, 524, 632. 88 

783 316 45 


Banco de Loiulros v Mexico 


Banco Internaiional o Hipotecario a. . 


1,500,000.00 


Bunco Minero dc Chihuahua 


1, 812, 140. 75 
446,249.00 

3,637,280.00 

1,473,787.00 
431,549.00 

1,182,865.00 
543,271.00 
426, 690. 00 

1, 026, 580. 00 
834, 250. 00 
740,000.00 
98,925.00 

2, 216, 560. 00 
336,760.00 


1, 074, 189. 87 
254,058.77 

2, 205, 654. 95 
912 148 69 


Banco Comorcial de Chihuahua 




Banco Vucateco 




Banco Mcrcantil de Yucatdn 




Banco de Durango 




367, 639. 68 
623, 430. 45 
663 130 41 


Banco de Nnevo Le6n 




Banco dc Zacatecas. . 


240, 000. 00 
750, 000. 00 


Banco del Estado de Mc'xico 6 

Banco de Coahuila h 


276, 817. 29 
684, 124. 08 
597, 542. 12 
463,979.82 
290,481.13 

1, 378, 771. 42 
268,325.19 

1, 244, 603. 89 


Banco de San Luis Potosi b. . . 


556,666.60 


Banco de Sonora b 


Banco Occidental de Mexico 6 

Banco Mercantil de Veracruz 6 


250,000.00 


Banco de Jalisco b 




Banco Central Mexicano 6 


3,000,000.00 






Total 


55, 360, 000 00 


58,208,340.75 


16, 290, 000. 00 


48,361,213.55 





a This bank issues only guaranteed bonds. 

b These banks have been established since the passage of the banking law of March 19, 1897. 

The three principal banks of the Republic are: The National Bank 
of Mexico, a stock company, with twelve branch offices at Chihua- 
hua, Durango, Guadalajara (Jalisco), Guanajuato, Mazatlan (Sinaloa), 
Merida (Yucatan), Monterey (Nuevo Leon), Oaxaca, Puebla, San Luis 
Potosi, Veracruz, and Zacatecas; the International and Mortgage 
Bank, a limited stock company, having a board of directors in the 
City of Mexico and another in New York (United States), and the 
London and Mexico Bank, also a stock company, with branch offices 
in Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Mazatlan, Morelos, Puebla, Queretaro, 
San Luis Potosi, and Veracruz. 

The oldest banking institution of Mexico is the Monte de Piedad 
(National Pawn Shop), which was established in 1775, with a capital of 
$300,000, given by Don Pedro Romero de Terreros. Formerly it pos- 
sessed the authority to issue notes, but this authority has been revoked 
and all the notes redeemed. It is in reality a charity, the business of 
which amounts to over $1,000,000, distributed among 60,000 borrowers. 

The Bank of London and Mexico commenced its operations in the 
Republic under the name of the Bank of London, Mexico, and South 
America, without a Federal concession. This was not necessary accord- 
ing to the law then in force. When, in 1884, owing to the commercial 
code, it became necessary to obtain such a concession, that of the 
Employees' Bank was transferred to it with modifications. In 1889 a 
new contract was executed, changing the name to the Bank of London 
and Mexico, and further modifying the contract of 1886. 

The Mexican National Bank was established in 1881, the contract 
being modified in 1881:, when permission was granted to combine with 



MEXICO. 263 

the Mercantile Mexican Bank and change the name of the institution 
to National Bank of Mexico. 

The Mortgage Bank (Banco Hipotecario) was established by virtue 
of a concession bearing date of May 22, 1882, and modified in August, 
1888, when its name was changed to that it now bears (International 
and Mortgage Bank of Mexico) and its capital increased. 

The existing banks are prosperous and in a flourishing condition, 
but the demand for increased facilities are such that new banks are 
being established and the operations of the old ones increased and 
extended in various directions. 

The privilege of issuing bank notes or bills on demand in the Fed- 
eral District is confined to the Bank of London and Mexico and the 
National Bank. Though this privilege is also granted to the banks to 
be established in the States of the Republic, they will not be per- 
mitted officially to establish redemption agencies for their notes in the 
capital, and it will be a long time before the bills of the States' banks 
occupy the same position in the public confidence as those issued at the 
capital, though they are now circulating more freely. There are 
a great many private banking houses in the City of Mexico and else- 
where, which have a high standing and do an excellent business. Dur- 
ing the last fiscal year an American bank has been established at the 
capital, which seems to be flourishing.^ 

Doubtless before a great while every State of the Republic will 
have at least one bank, as the banking law now in force ofl^ers certain 
advantages to pioneer State banks. This will also facilitate the trans- 
action of business, doing away with the extraordinary charges that 
have been prevalent, especially when life and property were not as 
safe as they are at present. Drafts can now be drawn on many distant 
points at a slight expense, and competition is reducing even this charge. 

Bank failures are unknown in Mexico. The Government has an 
inspector attached to each bank, whose duty it is to exercise a strict 
supervision over the issuance of bank notes, and other operations of 
the notes being dependent upon his signature. 

The security required b}'^ Mexican banks is of such a nature and the 
formalities so difiicult that but few American houses can comply with 
them, consequently the extension of American interests is not so 
rapid as it should be. The bills issued by banks of issue are regulated 
strictly by law. It is not the custom in Mexico to make large deposits 
in the banks, not for lack of confidence, however, but it is claimed that 
the stamp tax on checks and drafts has much to do with this. 

The usual rate of interest charged varies from 6 to 8 per cent, only 
outside brokers and professional money lenders obtaining more, and 

1 Commercial Relations of the United States, 1898, vol. 1, p. 514. Report of Consul- 
General Barlow, November 23, 1898. 



264 MEXICO. 

this on security that the banks would probably not accept, as they are 
ver}^ conservative. All accounts are kept in Mexican currency and 
the principal banks have accounts in New York, London, Paris, and 
Berlin. 

The Bank of Chihuahua, formed by capitalists of that city, is a hanco 
refaccionario, the first of its kind to be organized in the Republic, and 
entering" a different field from those now in existence. It is destined 
to be an important addition to the banking facilities of the city, as it is 
authorized to issue certain classes of securities other than bank notes. 
The principal provisions of the concession are that the name of the bank 
shall be ''Banco Refaccionario Mexicano," its capital in shares at the 
time of the concession 11,000,000, and its domicile the City of Mexico. 
The bank may establish four branches at such cities as may be deemed 
expedient, previous authorization being obtained from the Department 
of Finance, the capital to be increased at the rate of $100,000 for each 
new branch. To guarantee the establishment of the bank, a deposit of 
$100,000 in 3 per cent consolidated debt bonds shall be made in the 
General Treasury of the Federation, said deposit to be returned to the 
bank as soon as it begins operations. From March 19, 1897, the bank 
is to enjoy, during twenty-five years, all the exemptions and franchises 
granted by the general banking law, and any transfer of the concession 
not expressly approved by the Department of Finance shall be null 
and void, except as provided by law. The concession is to last for 
forty years from the above date, the loans made by the bank not to 
exceed in the aggregate the amount of capital stock actually paid up 
and the bonds which it may have in circulation, in accordance with 
the provisions of the general banking law. Further, the bank can not 
transact loan and discount operations running for more than six months 
not guaranteed by two responsible parties other than those provided 
by law. 

The amount of bonds which the bank may put into circulation shall 
never exceed five times the capital actuall}^ paid up, nor may it at any 
time exceed the amount of specie and bullion which the bank holds in 
its vaults, added to the value of the immediatelv negotiable securities 
which it has on hand. For this purpose the following are held to be 
immediately realizable or negotiable securities : 

"Commercial notes running for a period of time which shall not 
exceed the term of the bonds issued as a consequence of the transac- 
tion or transactions that have been performed. 

"Mortgage bonds issued by banks or by mercantile corporations. 

"Bonds of the Mexican Government. 

' ' Bonds or any other securities, provided that they are quoted on 
one or other of the home markets or in the bourses of London, Paris, 
Berlin, or New York, and provided they have paid dividends or inter- 
est with entire regularity for at least two years prior to the date on 
which they are acquired by the bank." 



MEXICO. 265 

During the first five years from the date on which it opens for busi- 
ness the bank shall enjoy entire freedom of action as to the minimum 
amount of bonds which it shall circulate, but after that period the 
bank must maintain constantly in circulation an amount which shall at 
least be equal to its paid-up capital, if the latter does not exceed 
1500,000; and if the capital exceeds that sum, the amount of bonds in 
circulation must be 50 per cent of such capital, with the proviso, 
however, that the total of the bonds shall not be less than half a mil- 
lion dollars. At any time subsequent to the period of five years 
above mentioned when the bonds outstanding do not amount to the 
required figure during one hundred and eighty consecutive days, or 
during one hundred and eighty days, even though interrupted, if 
within a period of one year, the bank shall, even though it is to continue 
doing business, cease to enjoy the franchises in the matter of taxation 
granted by the general banking law, after an announcement to that 
eflfect has been made by the Department of Finance and the bank 
has been heard in its defense. 

The bank can not issue certificates of deposit payable at sight to 
bearer. The bonds which the bank may put into circulation shall set 
forth the time in which they are to be paid, and also the rate of inter- 
est which they bear. They shall be of |100, $500, and $1,000 denomi- 
nations, and payable both to bearer and to given individuals by name. 
They shall have coupons for the payment of interest when the time 
for which they are to run exceeds six months, and the form or model 
according to which they are to be printed shall be submitted for 
approval to the Finance Department. 

The principal and interest represented by the bonds in circulation 
shall enjoy with respect to payment, over all other claims, the same 
preference as is granted to bank notes by article 25 of the general 
banking law. 

The bank may not pledge its bonds or the notes it has discounted as 
securitj^ 

Neither ofiicers nor employees of the Federal Executive may be mem- 
bers of the council of administration nor managers of the bank or its 
branches. This prohibition applies to functionaries and employees of 
the executive department of the States in which the bank may establish 
branches. 

In order to compensate the Government for the expense of super- 
vision, the bank shall hand over in quarterly installments, in advance 
and in cash, the sum of $3,000 per year. 

Any controversy that may arise with the Mexican Government in 
regard to this contract shall be submitted to the decision of the Federal 
tribunals of the Republic, with the exception of such cases as, accord- 
ing to the law, have to be settled b}^ administrative action. 

The general law for the establishing of banks, passed on June 3, 
1896, provides that the Executive of the Union is authorized to issue 



266 MEXICO. 

the g-eneral law by which the concession, establishment, and opera- 
tions of banks of issue in the States of the Republic are to be gov- 
erned, subject to the following provisions: 

1. No concession shall be granted without the deposit by the con- 
cessionaires of bonds of the national public debt whose nominal par 
value shall be at least equal to 20 per cent of the sum which the bank 
is to have in cash in order to begin operations. 

2. The minimum capital subscribed shall be $500,000, of which at 
least half shall be paid in cash before the bank begins operations. 

3. The cash Ijalance in each bank shall never be reduced to less than 
half the amount of its circulation notes and the amount of deposits 
payable on demand, or at three days' sight, or less. 

4. No bank shall be authorized to issue circulation notes for a sum 
greater than three times the amount of its paid-up capital. 

5. The bank notes may be accepted as currency and shall not be of 
a lower denomination than $5. 

6. Exemptions or rebates from taxes shall only be allowed to the 
bank first established in any of the States or Federal Territories of 
the Republic. All other banks shall pay the taxes imposed b}^ the 
general laws, and, furthermore, a special tax to the Federation of 2 
per cent per annum upon the amount of their paid-up capital. For 
the purposes of this section, first banks shall be considered such as are 
now established, provided thej^ subject themselves to the provisions 
of the general law. 

7. Banks established in a State shall not have beyond the same 
branch ofiices for the conversion of their notes, save by special per- 
mission from the Executive, who will grant the same only when close 
business interests bind several States, but never for the establishment 
of said branch ofiices in the City of Mexico or in the Federal District. 

8. The Federal Executive shall have at the banks an interventor, 
whose duties shall be specified and who, at the revision of the annual 
balances, shall have the same authority granted by law to the commis- 
saries of corporations. 

9. Banks shall publish a monthly balance sheet, which shall show, 
besides the balances of accounts required by law, the cash on hand, 
amount of bank notes in circulation, and amount of deposits payable 
on demand or at three days' sight, or less. 

10. No concessions shall be granted by the Executive of the Union 
until after the promulgation of the general banking law and in con- 
formity with its provisions. 

The Executive is likewise authorized: 

1. To enter into agreements with the National Bank of Mexico, pur- 
suant to which, and through such compensation as may be deemed 
equitable, all variances between the concession of said bank and the 
promulgation of the general law referred to in the foregoing article 
shall be removed. 



MEXICO. 267 

2. To enter into agreements with banks already existing pursuant 
to special concessions, provided that State banks, in order to enjoy the 
benefits of the general law, shall relinquish the concessions under which 
they were established. 

3. The authority granted the Executive by the present article to 
enter into agreements with the State banks shall cease six months after 
the publication of the general law, and that granted for other pur- 
poses shall terminate on the 15th of next September. 

The regulations which are to govern all other institutions of credit 
may be the subject of the said law or of other special laws that the 
Executive may issue as he may deem best. 

4. The Executive will report to Congress, with respect to his action 
under the authority conferred upon him by this law, at the session 
next following the publication of the decree or decrees in the premises. 

Pursuant to the authority in him vested by this law, the President, 
on March 19, 1897, promulgated the " General Law relating to institu- 
tions of credit," the main features of this law are as follows: 

For the purposes of the law, the following only are considered as 
institutions of credit: Banks of issue, mortgage banks, and loan 
{refaccionarios) banks. 

Banks of issue are such as issue notes of a given value, payable at 
par, at sight, and to bearer. 

Mortgage banks are such as make loans secured by mortgage on 
urban or suburban real estate, and issue bonds secured in like manner, 
bearing interest and paj'-able under given circumstances at fixed dates. 

Loan banks are such establishments as are intended to facilitate 
mining, agricultural, and industrial operations by means of privileged 
advances, unsecured, assuming liability for determinate operations, 
and issuing bonds promptly maturing, bearing interest, and payable 
on a day certain. 

Credit institutions can only be established under a special concession 
granted by the Executive in conformity with the requirements and 
conditions of this law and the act of June 3, 1896. ■ 

Concessions for the establishment of institutions of credit may be 
granted to private individuals or corporations, but business operations 
under such concessions can only be conducted by corporations duly 
constituted in the Republic. 

Concessions to private parties shall be granted to three persons at 
least, who must prove, within the succeeding three months, the incor- 
poration of the association which is to operate under the concession 
and the assignment of the latter thereto. 

Corporations of this kind are governed by the commercial code 
whereinsoever it does not conflict with the following provisions: 

1. The number of corporators shall be seven, at least. 

2. The corporate capital shall never be less than 500,000^656'sinthe 



268 MEXICO. 

case of banks of issue and mortgage banks, nor less than 200,000 in the 
case of loan banks. 

3. Express authority of the Department of the Treasury is neces- 
sary to increase or reduce the corporate capital. 

4. No incorporation may be effected unless the corporate capital is 
fully subscribed and the 50 per cent thereof payable in cash paid in. 

5. The domicile of the corporation shall be the place in the Repub- 
lic where the principal office is located. 

6. Certificates of shares may be in the names of individuals until 
their value shall be fully paid in. 

7. The reserve fund shall consist of 10 per cent of the net annual 
profits until it shall equal a third part or more of the aggregate cor- 
porate capital. 

In no case shall the duration of the concessions exceed thirty years, 
reckoned from the date of this law, for banks of issue, and fifty years 
for mortgage and loan banks. Foreign banking institutions issuing 
notes payable to bearer can not maintain branches or agencies in the 
Republic for the issue and payment of the same. 

The articles of incorporation and by-laws of all corporations 
referred to in this law shall be submitted for approval to the Depart- 
ment of the Treasury before the bank opens for business. 

Banks of issue may be established and operate in the States and 
Territories subject only to the provisions of this law. Such banks in 
the Federal District will continue to be governed by existing contracts 
and provisions. 

Bank notes of the denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 
fesos only shall be placed in circulation. 

The notes must express in Spanish the obligation to pay in cash at 
par, at sight, and to bearer the face value thereof. The date of issue, 
series, and number of the note, as well as the signatures of the Gov- 
ernment interventor, one of the directors, and of the manager or 
cashier of the same, must also appear. 

Bank notes bear no interest and are imprescriptible during the life 
of the institution. The obligation to pay shall lapse by limitation 
five years after the bank is declared in bankruptcy or it shall go into 
liquidation. 

Banks of issue are prohibited from — 

1. Making loans or discounting or negotiating securities when the 
date of maturity exceeds six months. 

2. Discounting promissory notes or other commercial paper without 
two responsible indorsements at least, or without collateral security. 

3. Making loans secured b}^ mortgage, save in the cases mentioned 
below. 

4. Pledging or depositing their notes and contracting any obligations 
thereby. 

5. Mortgaging their property or pledging their discounted paper. 



MEXICO. 269 

Banks of issue may only accept security by way of mortgage when 
the credit of any of the responsible indorsers of discounted paper shall 
have suffered loss, and when the Department of the Treasury shall 
expressly authorize the same. 

No individual or corporation not authorized thereunto by the pro- 
visions of this law may issue any promissorj^ note or paper containing 
a promise to pay in cash, to bearer, at sight. 

Mortgage banks may make loans secured by mortgage as follows: 

1. Short-time loans bearing simple interest payable on a day certain. 

2. Long-time loans, reimbursable in annual payments to include 
interest, reduction on principal, and remuneration to the bank. 

Short-time loans are such as are payable in one or more installments, 
but always in less than ten years. 

With respect to loans reimbursable in annual payments, the number 
of such payments shall not be less than ten nor more than forty should 
the same be made in quarterlj^, semiannual, or annual installments. 

The bank's mortgage should always have priority, either because the 
real estate has no other mortgage attaching to it, or because, if pre- 
viously mortgaged, preference be given the new loan through subro- 
gation or pursuant to the express consent of the preferred creditors, or 
through any other means authorized by law. 

Mortgage loans shall never exceed one-half the value of the property 
mortgaged, to be appraised by experts named by the bank, unless an 
appraisement for taxation, made in due form of law, exists, in which 
case the Department of the Treasury may authorize banks to act upon 
such appraised valuation. 

Only such urban or suburban real estate as is situated within the 
States, Federal District, or Territories where the principal office or 
branch offices of the bank are located shall be the subject of mortgages. 

Property held under certain titles may not be mortgaged to secure 
loans. 

Banks can not make secured loans on mines, forests, temples, nor 
real estate specially devoted to some public service of the Federation, 
States, or municipalities. 

The aggregate amount of sums loaned and secured by mortgage 
shall at no time exceed twenty times the paid-up capital of the loaning 
bank, nor shall the sums loaned any individual or association exceed 
the one-fifth part of such capital. 

Moneys due by debtors in payment of installments on the principal, 
or for interest, can not be withheld or in any way restrained by law or 
otherwise. 

The nominal value of the mortgage bonds these banks are authorized 
to issue shall never exceed the aggregate amount of secured loans. 

These bonds shall bear such interest as the board of directors of the 
banks may determine. 

The bonds shall be of the denominations of 100, 500, and l,OOO^^os, 



270 MEXICO. 

respectively, and assignable by simple transfer if payable to bearer, or 
by indorsement if payable to order. 

Mortgage bonds may be issued either without date of maturit}'^ or 
payable on a day certain. The former shall be taken up through 
drawings. 

There shall be two drawings at least in every year, and at each draw- 
ing there shall be taken up the number of bonds that may be neces- 
sary in order that the nominal value of those still in circulation shall in 
no case exceed the aggregate amount of the secured loans of the bank. 

Within eight days after the drawings the numbers of the bonds 
drawn shall be published, as also the date upon which they should be 
presented for payment. These bonds shall cease to bear interest 
from the date designated for their payment. 

The banks may provide for extra drawings should they see fit. 
Bonds so paid shall be canceled and destroyed. 

Mortgage banks shall keep on hand at all times a special guarantee 
fund in cash, which shall always be greater than the semiannual inter- 
est on the bonds in circulation. 

Besides making loans secured by mortgage and issuing bonds, mort- 
gage banks are authorized to engage in the operations following : 

1. To invest in their own bonds and in other first-class securities. 

2. To make loans for not more than six months, secured by such 
securities as collateral. 

3. To receive deposits, paying, or not, interest thereon. 

4. To draw, buy, sell, and discount bills of exchange, drafts, orders, 
or checks, payable in the Republic or abroad at a date not to exceed 
six months. 

6. To sell, buy, or collect on commission, directly or through agents, 
all kinds of securities. 

6. To loan, with proper security, the mortgage bonds deposited as 
security, 

7. To make loans or advances for public works or improvements, 
entering into the necessary contracts for the purpose with the Federal, 
State, and municipal governments. 

Mining stock certificates are expressly excluded from the securities 
in which the banks are allowed to invest. 

Banks may receive deposits onh^ to an amount not greater than five 
times the paid-up capital; and they are bound to keep on hand at 
all times in cash, gold or silver bullion, or immediately convertible 
securities, an amount equal to two-thirds, or more, of the aggregate 
deposits. 

Loans made to the Federal, State, and municipal governments must 
be secured by mortgage on real estate, lien on taxes specially levied, 
or by the securities issued to raise the funds necessary to execute the 
public works referred to. 



MEXICO. 271 

Mortgage banks are prohibited from issuing bank notes, or any 
other security payable on demand to bearer. 

The concluding sections treat of the legal steps to be taken to fore- 
close mortgages, and exempt banks of this kind from furnishing the 
bonds required in legal proceedings. 

Loan banks are authorized to engage in the operations following: 

1. To make cash loans, payable within two years, to mining, indus- 
trial, and agricultural enterprises. 

2. To pledge their responsibility in order to facilitate the discount- 
ing or negotiating of promissory notes or obligations maturing not 
later than six months after date. 

3. To issue bonds paj^able in coin, bearing interest and maturing in 
not less than three months nor more than two years after date. 

The law gives banks of this kind a first lien on all mines, products, 
crops, live stock, machinery, tools, agricultural implements, etc., which 
may be pledged to the payment of a loan. 

The value of the coin bonds issued by loan banks shall never exceed 
the amount on hand in cash or in bars of the precious metal, plus the 
value of immediately convertible securities held as bills collectible. 

These banks are prohibited: 

1. From issuing bank notes. 

2. From engaging in mortgage operations and from issuing mort- 
gage bonds. 

3. From working on their own account mines, reduction works, 
industrial establishments, or agricultural estates, and from entering 
into any open association, or as silent partners, with parties represent- 
ing such enterprises. 

Banking institutions are prohibited from acquiring real estate under 
any title whatsoever, other than that necessary for the establishment 
of their offices and dependencies, and such as ma}^ be adjudicated to or 
received by them in the collection of their debts or in the exercise of 
the rights incident to the operations in which they engage. The real 
estate adjudicated and received as above must be conveyed away within 
three years, in the case of mortgage banks, and within two 3^ ears in the 
case of loan and issue banks. At the expiration of such terms with- 
out any conveyance, the Department of the Trea,sury shall order a 
public sale of the real estate. 

Banking institutions shall not buy their own stock nor engage in 
any operation requiring it for security. 

The consolidation of two or more banks can not be effected without 
the previous approval of the Department of the Treasur}^ 

Banking institutions must publish a monthly balance sheet showing 
at least the information following: 

Under assets: 

1. Uncalled capital, 



272 MEXICO. 

2. Cash on hand. 

3. Notes discounted, 
-i. Loans on collateral. 

5. Loans on mortgage. 

6. Investments in public securities and immediately convertible 
paper. 

7. Accounts current, debtor. 

8. Real estate belonging to the bank. 
Under liabilities: 

1. Capital. 

2. Circulation. 

3. Deposits. 

4. Accounts current, creditor. 

5. Reserve and precautionar}- funds. 

The Department of the Treasury shall publish a yearly statement 
of the condition of the banking institutions of the Republic. 

The last chapter of the law treats of franchises and taxes. It pro- 
vides that the capital of banking institutions, the shares representing 
the same, dividends paid to shareholders, and the several kinds of 
securities issued by them are exempt from every manner of taxation, 
Federal, State, and municipal, save the real-estate tax on the buildings 
occupied by them for office purposes and the stamp tax. There are, 
however, numerous exemptions from this latter burden. 

Since the publication of the foregoing law the Treasury Depart- 
ment has entered into a contract with each of the State banks formerly 
established, in which the banks waive the rights acquired under their 
original concessions and subject themselves to the requirements of the 
new law, thereby enjoying the privileges accorded to the first bank 
instituted in each State. Each of the banks has five years within 
which to call in its notes of a denomination less than 5 pesos. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 

RAILROADS AND RAILROAD LAW — TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE LINES — 
STEAMSHIP LINES — POSTAL SERVICE. 

Notwithstanding earnest endeavors to foster railroad construction 
in Mexico, for many years the topographical conditions of the country 
rendered such enterprises both difficult and expensive. Means of 
communication were limited to a few wagon roads, over which twenty- 
four regular lines of diligences were operated under one management, 
supplemented by a few bridle paths, leading from the Central Plateau 
over the Sierras to points on the Pacific and Gulf coasts. 

In 1854 the first section (about 4 kilometers in length) of what after- 
wards became the Mexican Railway was finished, connecting the City 
of Mexico with Guadalupe, and, with another line, about 19 kilometers 
long, between Veracruz and Tejeria, constituted the railways of the 
Republic until 1861. The French army, during the war of inter- 
vention, in 1862, carried the Tejeria section as far as Paso del Macho, 
at the foot of the mountains, a distance of about 56 kilometers. About 
the same time an English syndicate, which had a concession from the 
Government to build a road from the capital to Veracruz, extended 
the Guadalupe road to Puebla, the entire line to Veracruz being com- 
pleted in 1873. It is from this period that the era of railroad develop- 
ment in Mexico dates, new impetus being given to this branch of 
public service by the installation of General Diaz a& President, in 1876. 
From 1877 to 1882 Mexico built more miles of railroad than any other 
Latin American country, the average yearly construction during that 
period being 689 kilometers.^ 

In his message to Congress, April 1, 1897, President Diaz, in refer- 
ring to the extent of railway development in the Republic, states that 
in 1875 there were 578 kilometers 285 meters of road; in 1886, 5,915; 
in November, 1888, 7,940; in June, 1892, 10,233, or, including the 
tramways and other local private lines, 11,067 kilometers; in Septem- 
ber, 1894, 11,100, and in April, 1897, the total extent amounted to 

^ Informe del C. General Porfirio Diaz, Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, 
a BUS compatriotas, 1896. 

65lA 18 273 



274 



MEXICO. 



11,469 kilometers. The same document also gives the following 
figures in regard to traffic: 



1876. 



1893. 



1895. 



Number of passengers. 
Freight handled (tons) 
Gross receipts 



4,281,327 

132, 915 

S2, 564, 870 



19, 531, 395 

2, 734, 430 

821,019,960 



22, 781, 343 

3, 798, 360 

826,121,624 



24,269,895 

4, 798, 360 

828, 758, 450 



It is also stated that the subsidies paid for railroads up to Decem- 
ber, 1892, averaged $8,935 per kilometer built and in operation at that 
date, and up to June 30, 1896, the total amount paid in subsidies 
reached $107,743,660.25, distributed as follows: 

Paid in cash $46,896,901.95 

Certificates of construction ( convertible into 5 per cent bonds) 21, 711, 513. 92 

Paid in bonds 31,127,000.00 

Balance, payable either in cash or bonds 8,008,244. 38 

Taking into consideration that in the $31,127,000 paid in bonds, 
$13,500,000 are included which were paid in gold to the contractors of 
the Tehuantepec Railway at 100 per cent premium, such sum must be 
regarded as $27,000,000 silver, thus increasing the former total to 
$121,343,660.35 silver.^ 

Most of the railways built in Mexico have obtained large subsidies 
from the Government, ranging from $6,000 to $10,000 per kilometer, 
according to the difficulties of the work, these subsidies having con- 
tributed very largely to the prosperous condition of the roads, as the 
proceeds have been used not only to build the line, but in some cases 
to pa}^ the interest on bonds. 

At present the railroad system of the Republic connects the capital 
with the principal centers of population, commerce, and production; 
also with some of the more important seaports of the Republic and 
with the United States. The Tehuantepec road, formerly owned and 
operated by the Government, is the only line connecting the Pacific 
and Gulf coasts. Lines traversing the central plateau as far as the 
United States frontier connect the City of Mexico with the capitals of 
Queretaro, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, Chihuahua, 
and San Luis Potosi, over the Central Railroad, while the International 
road connects it with Durango; the National line with Mexico (Toluca), 
Guanajuato, Michoacan, San Luis Potosi, Coahuila, and Nueva Leon; 
the Mexican International with Puebla and Veracruz (via Orizaba and 
Jalapa), and the Southern Mexican with Puebla, Tiaxcala, and Oaxaca. 
The port of Manzanillo is connected with the capital of Colima; the 
port of Matamoros with Reynosa and San Miguel, in Tamaulipas; 
Tampico with San Luis Potosi and Monterey, and the Tehuantepec 

^ "Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, sus progresos enveinte anos de paz, 1877-1897." 
Eafael de Zayas Enriquez, New York, p. 195. 



MEXICO. 



275 



line connects Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf with Salina Cruz on the 
Pacific. The International in its southern extension passes near 
Cuernavaca (Morelos) and the Cuernavaca and Pacific road runs to 
Ig'uala (Guerrero) and will soon connect with Acapulco on the Pacific. 
Merida on the Yucatan Peninsula is connected by rail with Progreso 
and Campeche, 

The slopes on the Pacific side of the great central table-land present 
much greater engineering difficulties than those on the east or Gulf 
side, hence the slow development of means of communication in the 
former section. 

According to the latest available statistics from Mexico, the number 
of kilometers of railroad on December 31, 1897, was as follows: 

Meters. 

Railroads under Federal grants 11, 526, 852 

Tramways 471, 012 

Suburban lines under State grants 380, 470 

Railroads belonging to private parties 421, 754 

Portable railways, Decauville system 884, 855 

Total 13,684,943 

The following tables show the name of the railroads, date of con- 
cession, and number of kilometers built for all the roads operating 
under Federal grants on December 31, 1897: 

[S. stands for standard gauge and N. for narrow gauge.] 



Name of railroad. 



Date of con- 
cession. 



Number of 

kilometers 

built on all 

lines. 



Perrocarril Mexicano and Ometusco & Pachuca (S.) 

Perrocarril de M6rida Progreso (S.) 

Perrocarril del Distrito Federal (S.) 

Ferrocarril de Hidalgo y Nordeste (N.) 

Ferrocarril de Veracruz & Alvarado (S. and N.) 

J'errocarril de M6rida & Peto (N.) 

Ferrocarril Interoce&nico (N.) 

Perrocarril Occidental de Mexico (S.) 

Perrocarril Central Mexicano (S. ) 

Ferrocarril Nacional Mexicano (N. ) 

Perrocarril de la Compaiiia Constructora Nacional Mexicana (N.). 

Perrocarril de Sonora (S.) 

Ferrocarril de Merida & Valladolid, and branch to Progreso (N.) . . 

Ferrocarril de Tlalmanalco (N. ) 

Ferrocarril de Nerida & Campeche (N. ) 

Ferrocarril de Campeche & Lerma (N.) 

Ferrocarril Internacional Mexicano (S. ) 

Perrocarril de Nautla a San Marcos (N.) 

Perrocarril de San Juan Bautista al Carrizal (N.) 

Perrocarril de San Andr6s Chalchicomula (S. ) 

Ferrocarril de Orizaba al Ingenio (S.) 

Ferrocarril de Santa Ana & Tlaxcala (S.) 

Ferrocarril de C&rdenas al Rio Grijalva (N.) 

Ferrocarril de Toluea & San Juan de las Huertas (N.) 

Ferrocarril de Vanegas & Rio Verde (N. ) 

Perrocarril de Tehuacan A Esperanza (S.) 

Ferrocarril de Merida & Izamal (S.) 

Ferrocarril de Chihuahua al Pacifico (S.) 

Ferrocarril de Mexicano del Sur (N.) 

Perrocarril de Baja California (S.) 

Ferrocarril de Monterey al Golfo (S.) 

Ferrocarril de Teeolutla al Espinal (N.) 

Perrocarril de C6rdoba & Tuxtepec (S.) 

Ferrocarril de Pachuca & Tampico (S. ) 

Perrocarril de Michoacdn y Pacifico (N.) 



Nov. 27, 
Jan. 17, 
July 21, 
Feb. 2, 
Nov. 26, 
Nov. 27, 
Apr. 16, 
Aug. 16, 
Sept. 8, 
Sept. 13, 

do. 

Sept. 14, 
Dec. 15, 
Feb. 3, 
Feb. 23, 

do. 

June 7, 
June 25, 
Sept. 17, 
Sept. 20, 
Sept. 22, 
Dec. 11, 
May 12, 
May 25, 
June 11, 
Nov. 28, 
May 15, 
Nov. 13, 
Apr. 21, 
May 25, 
Nov. 10, 
Dec. 10, 
May 19, 
June 5, 
Aug. 16, 



1867 
1874 
1882 
1878 
1878 
1878 
1878 
1880 
1880 
1880 

1880' 
1880 
1881 
1881 

1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1883 
1883 
1883 
1884 
1884 
1886 
1887 
1887 
1887 
1888 



Meters. 

516, 500 

36,456 

106, 420 

209, 700 

70, 410 

118, 000 

900, 070 

61,927 

3, 159, 363 

1, 691, 150 

142, 000 

422, 302 

115, 688 

26, 680 

184, 375 

6,000 

1, 061, 510 

79, 000 

5,750 

10, 353 

7,550 

8,500 

7,500 

15,721 

66, 855 

50, 000 

65, 848 

11, 000 

366, 600 

27, 000 

624, 640 

25, 850 

51,000 

20, 000 

90, 291 



276 



MEXICO. 



Kame o^ railroad. 



Date of eon- 
cession. 



Number of 
kilometers 
built on all 

lines. 



tarrocarril 
Fern.iearril 
Fenxicarril 
Ferrucarril 
Ferroearril 
Ferroearril 
Ferrocarril 
Ferroearril 
Ferroearril 
Ferroearril 
Ferroearril 
Ferroearril 
Ferroearril 
Ferroearril 
Ferroearril 
Feroearrile 
Ferroearril 
Ferroearril 
Ferroearril 
Ferrocarril 

Total. 



do Salamanea al Jaral (N.) 

de Monte Alto (N.) 

de Veraerui', a Boea del Rio (N. ) 

de Naeio7uiI de Tehuantepec (S.) 

de Industrial de Puebla (S. ) 

Minero (S. ) 

Mexieo, Cuernavaea y el Pacifleo (S.) 

Carljonil'ero de Oaxaea (N.) 

Toluea ;i Telia nj^n) (N.) 

Zavaleta a San iiaiael (N.) 

]'"speraiiza al Xiiehil (S.) 

Ciniiiiajuato a Dolores Hiaalgo y San Luis de la Paz (N.) 
Celaya a las Haeiendas de "Roque" y " Plancarte" (N.) 

Coniiiauia a la Hacienda de Zoquiapam (N.) 

( 'a/aderc > a Soils (S. ) 

s Industriales (S.) 

Ciudad ,lu:irez A Corralitos (S.) 

Torres a Minas Prietas (N.) 

Jalapa a Teocelo (N.) 

Jalapa a Cordoba (N.) 



Aug. 30, 1888 
do 

Aug. 31, 1888 



July 2,1889 
May 20,1890 
May 30,1890 
Apr. 20,1891 
Nov. 24,1S91 
Mar. 24, 1892 
Nov. 29, 1892 
May 24,1893 
June 2,1893 
June 3,1893 
May 24, 1893 
Dec. 18,1895 
Mar. 24, 1896 
May 28,1897 
June 3,1893 
Dec. 5, 1895 



Mctirs. 
35, 500 
10, 000 
11,504 

309, 677 
39, 4.59 

130, 200 

159, 386 

20, 000 

25, 000 

4,000 

25, 500 

20, 000 

14, 600 

8,317 

30, 000 

3,000 

250, 000 
22, 000 
17, 000 
29, 700 



11, 526, 852 



The other railways in the Republic were: 



states. 


Tramways. 


Suburban lines, 
State grants. 


Private railways. 


Portable rail- 
ways. 


Num- 
ber. 


Meters. 


Num- 
ber. 


Meters. 


Num- 
ber. 


Meters. 


Num- 
ber. 


Meters. 


Aguas Calientes 


1 
2 
1 
1 


1,120 
4,887 
6, 2.50 
3,000 






1 

1 

9 


5,170 
13,000 
.■s inn 






Campeche 


1 
1 

1 
1 


40, 000 
6,100 
4,000 

50, 000 


8 
3 


•'6 000 


Coahuila 


1 650 


Colima 


1 1.012 




Chiapas 










Chihuahua 


2 
2 
6 


4,569 
14, 300 
36,463 










Durango 




1 








Guanajuato 


1 


36, 000 




9 

1 


12, 893 


Guerrero 


1 


1,252 


Hidalgo 




8,845 
23, 172 
30, 600 

8,941 




1 






Jalisco 


5 


46, 731 










Mexico 


10 

1 

4 
3 


109,901 

14, 100 

7,870 

53,000 






MichoacAn 


1 


4,000 






Morelos ... 


1 


18 000 


Nuevo Leon 




36,983 

1,500 

30,000 

12, 040 

24,900 

4,042 

3,203 

2,400 

10,863 


2 


20, 303 




Oaxaea 






Puebla 






4 
1 
3 

1 
1 


28,022 
314 
17, 500 
2,133 
16,000 


8 


77, 460 


QueriStaro 


1 
1 


9,000 
11, 000 




San Luis Potosi 


1 
3 


1 000 


Sinaloa 


14, 252 


Sonora 


1 
1 


21,000 
6,200 


Tabasco 


10 


12, 700 


Tamaulipas 








Tlaxcala 


2 

3 

2 


13,586 
19, 550 
44,000 
49,000 


4 


26, 896 






Veracruz 


5 

i 

2 


33, 950 

32, 694 

8,950 

104,987 


1 
171 


1,000 

718, 668 


Yucatan 


12 


82, 260 


Zacatecas 


Federal District 


5 

2 


3,476 
36, 000 


2 


6, 700 


Baja California 








Tepic 


1 


1,000 
























Total 


52 


458,812 


26 


380, 470 


56 


421,754 


118 


884, 855 





The principal railroads in the country are controlled by corporations, 
a brief sketch of each being subjoined. 

The Mexican Railway {I^errocarril Mexicano) was, as already stated, 
the first road constructed in the Republic, having been begun in 
1857 and portions of the line being opened to the public at different 



MEXICO. 277 

times. The Puebla branch was inaugurated in 1869, the main branch 
being- opened for its entire length in 1873 and the Ometusco-Pachuca 
extension in December, 1890. The total length of the line is 516 kilo- 
meters 500 meters, as follows: Mexico to Veracruz, 423 kilometers 
750 meters; Apizaco to Puebla, 47 kilometers, and from Ometusco to 
Pachuca, 45 kilometers 750 meters. It is a standard-gauge road, and 
runs through the States of Veracruz, Puebla, Hildalgo, and Mexico, 
starting at the city of Veracruz and passing through the towns of 
Cordova, Orizaba, Puebla, and Pachuca, its terminal point being the 
City of Mexico. It is considered one of the most beautiful and 
picturesque railway lines in the world, passing as it does from trop- 
ical vegetation of the valleys to the eternal snows on the summits of 
extinct volcanoes. From Veracruz to Orizaba the grade of ascent is 
gradual, skirting the mountains and traversing valleys and canyons. 
At the latter point the tropical landscapes come to an end and are 
succeeded by those of the temperate zone, the altitude being 1,200 
meters above sea level. The line continues its ascent, climbing the 
mountains over beds of volcanic formation at dizz}^ heights, through 
tunnels, etc., until the semicircular viaduct of "El Infiernillo" is 
reached, which is considered one of the boldest and most remarkable 
engineering feats of modern times. At this point the altitude reached 
is 2,450 meters above sea level, the line passing into the cold zone, 
and after a few hours' run the traveler enters the Central Plateau. 
The rapid descent of Maltrata, the grade being 4 per cent, necessitates 
the use of double locomotives of the Farlie system for the safetj'^ of 
the trains. From 1873 to December 31, 1897, the Mexican Railway 
carried 11,511,690 passengers and 8,295,734 tons of freight, yielding 
116,853,773 in fares, the total earnings of the line being $88,772,354.96.^ 
The Mexican Central Eailway {Ferrocarril Central Mexicano) is the 
result of the amalgamation of different Government concessions, 
granted originall}^ either to the company now in control of the line or 
to others. Work on the main line, from Mexico to Paso del Norte, 
was commenced on May 25, 1880, and completed March 8, 1884, the 
total extent being 1,970 kilometers, which indicates a per diem labor 
rate of 1,500 meters. The expenses of construction are estimated at 
$35,500,000, of which amount the Government contributed $18,620,000. 
This is the longest and most important road in the Republic, having 

^The Mexican Railway connects in Mexico City with the Mexican Central and 
Mexican National for northern and western points, and with the Interoceanic Rail- 
road for Morales; in Puebla, with the Mexican Southern for Oaxaca, Puerto Angel, 
and Tehuantepec, and with the Interoceanic for Izucar de Matamoros; in San Marcos, 
with the Nautla Railroad for San Juan de los Llanos; in Esperanza, with the Tehuante- 
pec Railroad; in Cordova, with the Agricola Railroad for Motzorongo and Tuxtepec; 
and in Veracruz, with the Alvarado Railroad for Tlacotalpam, San Andres, Tuxtla, 
Cosamaloapan, and Playa Vicente, and with steamship lines for Mexican Gulf ports, 
namely, Progreso, Campeche, Carmen, Frontera, Coatzacoalcos, Tuxpam, and Tam- 
pico, and for Habana, and American, English, Spanish, French, and German ports. 



278 MEXICO. 

connections with the United States and thereby facilitating trade, 
while at the same time it protects the States of Chihuahua and Sonora 
from the depredations of certain Indian tribes and assists in the devel- 
opment of the mineral wealth of the "Sierra," The total length in 
working condition was, on December 31, 1897, 3,153 kilometers 670 
meters, as follows: Mexico to Paso del Norte, 1,970 kilometers 300 
meters; Silas to Guanajuato, 23 kilometers 370 meters; Tula to 
Pachuca, 70 kilometers; Irapuato to Ameca, 349; Chicalote to Tam- 
pico and La Barra, 687, and Lerdo to San Pedro, 63 kilometers. 

The road was opened to regular passenger traffic on the 10th of 
April, 1881:. The Guadalajara division was opened May 21, 1888, and 
the Tampico division was finished March 30, 1890, thereby bringing 
the line to the Gulf of Mexico at Tampico. The railway is broad 
gauge, and traverses the Federal District, the States of Mexico, 
Hidalgo, Queretaro, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, 
Coahuila, Durango, and Chihuahua. It affords an outlet to the agri- 
cultural centers of San Juan del Rio, Penjamo, Silao, the extensive 
territory called El Bajio, and Lagos; to such manufacturing cities as 
Queretaro, Cela3^a, and Leon; to the rich mining districts of Pachuca, 
Zimapan, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Sombrerete, Sierra Mojada, and Chi- 
huahua; to the cotton country in the valleys of the rivers Nazas and 
Conchos; and to the commercial centers of Mexico, Guadalajara, 
Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, and Tampico. ^ 

From 1881 to December, 1897, the Mexican Central carried 
13,819,580 passengers, the receipts from this branch of the service 
being $22,118,659.70; also 11,006,992 tons of freight, which produced 
$83,389,899.68, or a total for the period under consideration of 
$105,538,559.38. 

^The Mexican Central connects at El Paso with the Atchison, Topeka and Santa 
Fe; for all points northeast and west with the Texas and Pacific; with the Southern 
Pacific for points north and east; with Southern Pacific Company and the Atchison, 
Topeka and Santa Fe for points north and west in the United States; at Gallego, with 
stage for Ascencion, Casas Grandes, and Corralitos; at Chihuahua, with stage for 
Cusihuiriachic, Guerrero, and Rosario; at Jimenez, with stage for AUende and Par- 
ral; at Escalon, with Mexican Northern Railway for Sierra Mojada; at Torreon, with 
the Mexican International for Durango, Monterey, and Tampico, via the Mexican 
Gulf Railway; at Fresnillo, with stage for Sombrerete; at Zacatecas, with Sullivan 
Construction Railwaj' for Ojo Caliente, with tramway for Guadalupe, and with stage 
for Jerez; at San Luis Potosi, with the Mexican National for Catorce Mines, Saltillo, 
Monterey, and San Miguel Allende; at Tampico, with steamers for Galveston, New 
Orleans, Mobile, New York, and European ports; at Celaya, Avith Mexican National 
for points north and south of that road; at Negrete, La Barca, and La Piedad, with 
stage for Zamora; at Guadalajara, with stage for Mazatlan, Tepic, and ZapotMn; at 
El Castilo, with tramway for the falls of Juanacatldn; at Atequiza, with stage for 
Lake Chapala; at the City of Mexico, with the Mexican Railway and Interoceanic 
Railway for Puebla, Cholula, Orizaba, Veracruz, Jalapa, Cuautla, Oaxaca via Mexi- 
can Southern; with the Hidalgo Railway for Tulancingo; at Huachinango, with the 
Mexican National for Toluca, Morelia. and Lake Patzcuaro, and with stage for 
Cuernavaca. 



MEXICO. 279 

The Intero'ceanic Railway {Ferrocarril Interocednico) is the result of 
a concession to build a road connecting Veracruz and Acapulco 
(hence its name Interoceanic), which was granted by the Mexican 
Government in April, 1878. The eastern section has been completed 
and the western portion as far as Tlalcualpican, while a branch line 
200 kilometers long, from Los Reyes, near the City of Mexico, to 
Amacusac in the State of Morelos, is under construction. In 1897 the 
length of the line was 900 kilometers, the number in exploitation being 
860, as follows: Mexico to Jalapa and Veracruz, 547 kilometers; 
Reyes to Amacusac, 197; Arcos to Tlalcualpican, 116 kilometers. 

From 1880 to 1897 the earnings of the road were as follows: Pas- 
sengers, numbering 12,028,286, product $5,819,576.22, and freight, 
4,119,137 tons, producing $17,165,769.18. This line is in active com- 
petition with the Mexican Railway.^ 

The Mexican National Railroad {Ferrocarril Nacional Mexicano) 
was inaugurated on November 1, 1888, but its construction had been 
under consideration since 1857. It is the shortest route between 
Mexico and the United States, and, though a narrow-gauge line, is'of 
no less imporance than the Central. Its total length is 1,691 kilo- 
meters 150 meters, the distance from Mexico to Laredo being 1,351 
kilometers 50 meters; from Acambaro to Patzcuaro, 153 kilometers 
400 meters; from INIatamoros to San Miguel, 120 kilometers; from 
Mexico to El Salto, 62 kilometers 700 meters, with an extension of 4 
kilometers more at this point. This road traverses United States ter- 
ritory for a distance of 260 kilometers 700 meters, from Laredo 
(Texas) to Corpus Christi, the terminus of the line. From 1873 to 
1897 the total earnings of the road were as follows: $12,461,053.68 
for passengers, and freight, $37,185,525.63, a total of $49,646,579.31; 
the number of passengers being 18,922,609 and the freight weighing 
7,006,528 tons." 

^This line connects at the City of Mexico with Mexican Central and Mexican 
National railroads for points north and west; at Otumba, with Mexican Eailway; at 
Irolo, with Hidalgo Eailway for Pachuca; at Puebla, with Mexican Southern for 
Oaxaca, with Mexican Eailway for Tlaxcala, and with Industrial Eoad (animal 
traction) ; for Cholula and San Marcos, with the Nautla Eailroad and Mexican Rail- 
way; at Jalapa, with tramway for Coatepec; at Veracruz, with Mexican Railway for 
Alvarado, and with steamers for Gulf ports, Habana, United States, and Europe; at 
Compania, with tramway for Chalco; at Yautepec, with private conveyance for 
Cuernavaca; at Jojutla, with stage for principal towns in the State of Guerrero. 

2 The connections of the Mexican National are at Laredo, for points north and east 
in the United States; at Matamoros, with the Mexican Gulf Railway for Venadito, 
Montemorelos, and Tampico; at Vanegas, with Vanegas, Cedral and Rio Verde 
Railroad for Cedral and Matehuala; at San Luis Potosi, with Mexican Central for 
Aguascalientes and Tampico; at Celaya, with same road for Guanajuato and Guada- 
lajara; at Maravatio, with Michoac^n and Pacific Railroad for Angangueo; at Toluca, 
with San Juan Railroad for Valle; at Mexico City, with the Hidalgo, the Inter- 
oceanic, and the Mexican for Pachuca, Puebla, Veracruz, Jalapa, Orizaba, and 
Cuautla Morelos. 



280 MEXICO. 

The Mexican International Railway {Ferrocarr'd Internacional 
Mexicano). — Thi.s .standard-gauge railway is an extension of the South- 
ern Pacific. It is the only trunk line built in Mexico with United 
States capital without a subsidy. Believing that a road from the Rio 
Grande tow;ard the Pacific Ocean would cross a section of the Republic 
of Mexico susceptible of great development, this company obtained 
certain concessions in 18S1, modified in 18S2 and 1SS3, and work was 
immediately commenced at Ciudad Porfirio Diaz and the Lampazos 
branch, thereb}^ reaching the coal fields of San Felipe. The track of 
the main line to Torreon was completed January 12, 1888, and the opera- 
tion of the road was commenced two months later. The San Pedro 
branch was built in 1890, and the main line was completed October 1, 
1892, to Durango, the capital of the State of Durango. This road 
traverses the States of Coahuila and Durango, and will extend through 
Sinaloa to reach Mazatlan, on the Pacific coast. It touches Eagle 
Pass, Allende, Sabinas, Monclova, Trevino, Jaral, Paila, Torreon, 
and Durango. The length of the main line, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz to 
Durango, is 869,510 meters; of the branches, Sabinas to Hondo, 
19,810 meters; Hornos to San Pedro, 23,100 meters; and Pedricena to 
Velardena, 9,370 meters. 

From 1884 to 1897 the total earnings of this road amounted to 
$18,282,639.79. divided as follows: Passengers (820,779), 12,266,578.09, 
and freight (3,605,189 tons), $16,016,058.70. The total length in 
operation in 1897 was 1,061 kilometers 510 meters.^ 

The Montere}^ and Mexican Gulf Railway {Ferrocarril de 2[onterrey 
al Golfo Mexicano) is now the property of a powerful Belgian com- 
pany, but the original grant of November 10, 1887, was made to an 
American company, which built the line, afterwards transferring it to 
the present owners. It extends from Trevino (formerl}-^ Venadito), in 
the State of Coahuila, on the International line, as far as Tampico, on 
the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 624 kilometers 640 meters, passing 
through Monterey, the capital of Nuevo Leon, and Ciudad Victoria, 
in Tamaulipas. This road connects at Treviiio with the International 
for Torreon, Durango, and points north; at Monterey with the Mexi- 
can National for points north and south on that line; at Tampico with 
the Mexican Central for San Luis Potosi and Aguascalientes, and with 
steamers for Gulf ports, the United States, Cuba, and Europe. 

^ Connections: At Eagle Pass, with the Southern Pacific Company for all points in 
the United States; at Allende, with stage for Zaragoza; at Sabinas, with stage for 
San Juan de Sabinas; at Felipe, with stage for Juarez and Progreso; at Berroterdu, 
with stage for Villa de Musquiz (Santa Rosa); at Monclova, with stage for Cuatro 
Cienegas and Sierra Mojada; at Trevifiio, with the Mexican Gulf Railway for Monte- 
rey, Tampico, and points on the National; at Jaral, with stage for Saltillo, the 
capital of the State of Coahuila; at Paila, with stage for Parras; at Hornos, with 
stage for Viesca; at Torreon, with the Mexican Central Railway for all points on 
that line and its connections. 



MEXICO. 281 

The earnings of the road since 1889, the date of its inauguration, up 
to December 31, 1897, were 15,321,018.31, divided as follows: Passen- 
gers (627,836), 1770,377.13, and freight (1,113,110 tons), $6,091,395.77. 

The Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific Railway {FerrocaTril de Mexico 
a Cuernavaca y el Pacified) has a total operating length of 159 kilo- 
meters, the concession for its construction dating May 30, 1890. The 
first division, from the capital to Cuernavaca, a distance of 119 kilo- 
meters, was opened to traffic on December 12, 1897. Beyond Cuer- 
navaca there is a branch line, 10 kilometers long, connecting Puente 
de Ixtala and Iguala, which is also open to traffic, and the entire road 
will soon be completed. From 1895 to 1897, the movement of the 
line is represented by 59,116 passengers and 180,016 tons of freight, 
the total earnings being estimated at $161,188.19, of which $63,167.45 
is for passengers and $101,321.01 for freight. 

The concession to the Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific Railway, 
modified on March 18, 1897, has been recently again modified in two 
or three of its articles. According to the first article of the original 
concession, the principal route was to run from the Cit}^ of Mexico to 
Cuernavaca, and then, following the Las Balsas River, to touch at 
Organal, or some other convenient point, to meet the line of the 
Inguaran Railway Company, and follow this line to the port of 
Zihuantanejo, and thence, should it suit the company, to reach Acapulco, 
with the further obligation to construct a branch line from the most 
convenient point on the main artery to Chilpancingo. The modifica- 
tion which has been made is to the effect that if within the term of 
five years the railroad from Organal to Zihuantanejo, to which the con- 
cession granted the Inguaran Railroad of September 11, 1898, refers, 
should not be constructed, the Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific Rail- 
way is bound to construct the said line. In case the former company 
should build the railroad mentioned, the latter company shall have the 
right to construct a line between the points mentioned should it suit 
their interests. In view of the greater length that the new line will 
have along the Balsas River to Organal, with the branch to Chilpan- 
cingo, the Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific Railway, instead of 60 
kilometers, will have to deliver to the Government 100 kilometers 
every two years. The construction of the Chilpancingo branch is to 
commence six months after the initiation of the work on the main 
line, the company being bound to construct 1 kilometer on the branch 
for every section of 1 kilometers in length built on the line from the 
Balsas River to Organal, in the understanding that by June 30, 1906, 
the main and branch lines shall be completed. 

The National Interoceanic Tehuantepec Railroad {Ferrocarril 
Nacional InteTocednico de Tehiiantejyec) is destined to be one of the 
most important in the Republic. The project was to build across the 
Isthmus of Tehuantepec and connect the. Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 



282 MEXICO. 

The idea of a highway for this purpose is very old, dating from the 
-time of Cortes. Surveys and plans have been made from time to 
time, but those of Captain Eads take the first place. The first serious 
efl'orts to realize this great work began in 1879, when an American 
company obtained a concession; but, unfortunately, the company was 
declared bankrupt in 1882. In 1883 the Mexican Government under- 
took to build the road and laid rails for a distance of some -10 kilome- 
ters. In 1889 and 1890 about lOU more kilometers of rails were laid 
under the McMurdo contract, and it was supposed that there remained 
only 100 kilometers more to build. In 1891 the McMurdo concession 
was rescinded and a new contract was made with Stanhope, Corthell & 
Hampson. By virtue of the authorization which Congress gave the 
Executive in the 3- ear 1895, a contract was entered into with Stanhope 
& Corthell for the completion of the road. 

The total length of the line from Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf to 
Salina Cruz on the Pacific measures 309 kilometers 617 meters. The 
Government, pursuant to the authority of Congress, has recently 
leased the road to S. Pearson & Son, of London, for fifty years. The 
firm contracts to l)uild two harbors, one at Coatzacoalcos and the 
other at Salina Cruz and to rebuild and repair the railroad. The Gov- 
ernment guarantees 6 per cent on whatever investment is made in the 
work, the excess over this percentage reverting to the Government. 
The firm is to exploit the harbors for its own benefit. The estimated 
cost of the work at Coatzacoalcos is between 11,600,000 and $2,000,000 
gold and at Salina Cruz between $8,000,000 and $10,000,000 gold. 
At the expiration of the fifty years the line, together with the har- 
bors, will again become the property of the Government.^ 

The Rio Grande, Sierra Madre and Pacific Railroad {Ferrocarril 
del Rio Grande^ Sierra Madre y el Pacified) is a new road built 
entirely by New York capital, under a grant bearing date of March 
24, 1896. It runs from Ciudad Juarez (Chiahuahua) to the southeast 
part of the Republic. Ground was broken for the inception of the 
line on August 15, 1896, and the first passenger train ran over the 
completed line to Casas Grandes, a distance of 250 kilometers, on June 
27, 1897. The cost of construction was $8,400 per English mile, and 
other expenses, such as right of way, equipment, telegraph lines, etc., 
amounted to about $2,475 more. The company claims that when the 
road was completed it was fully paid for, represented cash expended, 
and that no bonds have been issued or loans placed, nor is there one 

^ The road traverses the States of Veracruz and Oaxaca, touching Coatzacoalcos, 
MinatitMn, Suchil, Tehuantepec, and Salina Cruz. At Coatzacoalcos it connects with 
steamers for Gulf ports, Havana, United States, and Europe; at Tehuantepec with 
private conveyance for Oaxaca, Miahutlan, and Pachutla, and at Salina Cruz with 
steamers for Tonald, San Benito, and other Pacific Coast ports. 



MEXICO. 



283 



cent of outstanding indebtedness. It is proposed to extend the road 
to the Pacific Ocean. 

The following table shows the earnings of the other railways in 
Mexico from the date of inauguration to December 31, 1897, the 
figures being obtained from oflScial data: 



Name of line. 



Period 
of oper- 
ation. 



Passen- 
gers. 



Earnings. 



Freight. 


Earnings. 


Metric tons. 




182, 140 


8565, 736 


687, 807 


4, 420, 240 


1,783,880 


4, 646, 863 


681,488 


1, 494, 656 


140, 615 


560, 520 


402, 380 


1, 146, 331 


124, 221 


422, 050 


162, 355 


377, 016 


549, 562 


1, 251, 891 


162,439 


115, 825 


118,495 


166,071 


14, 354 


13,094 


83,066 


120, 817 


8,288 


7,062 


11,228 


23, 148 


156, 863 


116,128 


530, 507 


806, 035 


107, 937 


528, 926 


254,388 


1, 823, 547 


32, 416 


69,964 


29, 183 


9,862 


54, 478 


46, 988 


928, 038 


6, 966, 211 



Total. 



Vera Cruz and Alvarado Rail- 
way 

Sonora Railway 

Hidalgo and Northwestern 

Merida and Progreso 

Tehuaciin and Esperanza 

Merida and Peto 

Sinaloa and Durango 

Merida and Campeche 

M6rida and Valladolid 

Tlalmanaeo 

San Marcos and Nantla 

San Juan Bautista to Paso del 
Carrizal 

San Andres to Chalchicomula. 

Orizaba to El Ingenio 

Santa Ana to Tlaxcala 

Toluca and San Juan de las 
Huertas 

Vanegas and Rio Verde 

Merida and Izamal 

Southern Mexican 

Salamanca to Valle de Santiago 

Montealto 

Industrial Railway of Puebla. . 

Northern Mexican (mining) 
Road 



1885-97 
1881-97 
1881-97 
1881-97 
1884-97 
1881-97 
1882-97 
1883-97 
1883-97 
1883-97 
1891-97 

1888-97 
1882-97 
1882-97 
1883-97 

1885-97 
1889-97 
1887-97 
1890-97 
1889-97 
1892-97 
1891-97 

1891-97 



864, 124 

723, 529 
1,772,683 
1, 450, 428 

443, 749 
1, 845, 467 

506, 161 
1, 158, 629 
2, 612, 700 

618, 665 
95, 768 

1, 173, 248 

178, 700 

1, 693, 952 

1, 374, 271 

1, 871, 754 
228, 998 
690, 001 

1,231,450 
205, 517 
208, 841 

1,362,857 

36,896 



$536, 500 

1, 745, 986 

1, 524, 104 

640, 846 

160, 014 

658, 365 

200, 885 

385, 583 

672, 732 

68, 025 

57,347 

79, 464 

48, 352 

210, 475 

114,595 

179, 477 
89, 961 

451, 360 

1, 120, 052 

68, 739 

21,321 

215, 968 

81, 848 



$1, 102, 236 

6, 166, 226 

6, 170, 968 

2, 135, 502 

720, 534 

1, 804, 695 

622, 935 

762, 599 

1, 924, 623 

183, 850- 

223, 418 

92, 558 
169, 168 
217,537 
137,743 

295,605 
895, 996 
980, 286 
2, 943, 599 
138, 703 
31, 183 
262, 956 

7, 048, 060 



In 1898 the earnings of the Mexican railways amounted to $30,930,333, 
while in 1899 they rose to $35,791,493. 

The railways in the Federal District show earnings to the amount of 
$21,458,701 for the period between 1873 and 1897, the number of 
passengers carried being 264,336,645, which produced for the line 
$18,362,670. 

In addition to those mentioned there are several minor roads in 
operation, besides others under construction or projected, among which 
may be mentioned the following: A line from Bahia de la Asencion, 
inland, touching at San Antonio Muyil and other towns and connect- 
ing with the Merida and Peto line; from Campeche to the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec, to connect at "El Juile " with the Interoceanic, with a 
branch to the Guatemalan frontier; from Cordova to Tehuantepec; 
from Saltillo to Paredon Trevino or any other point on the Monterey 
Ime; from Mazatlan to Kosario and extending to Villa Union (Sina- 
loa); from San Marcos to Tecolutla, to be built entirely by Mexican 
capital and to connect the Mexican and the Interoceanic at San Mar- 
cos, thus communicating with the City of Mexico and Vera Cruz; from 
Chihuahua to the Pacific, extending from the former city to San 
Andres and thence to Ciudad Guerrero, and one to connect Matanzas 
with Monterey and Laredo. Other prospective lines have been treated 
of in the publications of the Bureau of the American Republics. 



284 MEXICO. 

The new railroad law of the Republic,^ whereb}^ those of December 
25, 187T, and December 16, 1881 — with the exception of those clauses 
relating- to the acquirement of telegraph and telephone lines by the 
Government — are repealed, was promulgated April 29, 1899. The 
law, which is one of considerable length and containing 16 chapters 
and 187 articles, is intended to cover ever3^thing connected with the 
granting of concessions, each concession having formerl}"- been the 
occasion of a special law. This general law will hereafter apply both 
to new concessions and to those pre viousl}^ granted the terms of which 
shall not conflict with the law. It also increases the difficulties of 
obtaining subsidized concessions and emphasizes the control exercised 
by the Government over companies. 

Chapter I of the new law is devoted to the classification of railroads 
subject to the Federation, which are divided into two classes, viz: 
I. General routes of communication. 
II. Routes of local interest in the Federal Districat and in the 
territories. 

III. Routes of local interest in the State. 

To the first class belong those connecting two or more States or 
connecting the Federal District or a territor}^ with one or more States; 
those touching at a port or at some point on the coast of the Republic 
or at some point on the border line with a foreign State, and those 
running wholl}^ or in part within a zone of 100 kilometers from the 
dividing line with a foreign State. 

To the second class belong the railroad lines connecting two or more 
towns of the Federal District or of a territory with one another, and 
those which, w^hile not connecting two or more towns by entering to 
their center, have one of their terminals on the outskirts of a town. 

Railroads built or projected within the territor}'^ of a State, whether 
under a State concession or not, shall be classed as routes of local 
interest subject to the Federation, providing that the concession has 
been granted b}^ the Federation, or that a subsidy, exemption from 
duties, release from taxation, or an}^ other aid has been granted by the 
Federation. 

General routes of communication are subdivided into lines of prime 
and secondary importance, the lines of prime importance being: 

I. A line connecting the city of Chihuahua with a port on the coast 
of Sonora or the north of Sinaloa. 

II. A line connecting the City of Mexico with a port in the State of 
Guerrero. 

' III. A line connecting the Mexican Railway between Orizaba and 
Veracruz with the Tehuantepec Railroad. 

IV. A line from Guadalajara to Tepic and Mazatlan. 

^ For the convenience of persons wishing to famiharize themselves with the full 
text of the law, it is kept on tile, both in Spanish and English, at the library of the 
Bureau of the American Republics. 



MEXICO. 285 

Y. A line from Guadalajara or some other point and the Mexican 
Central to Colima and Manzanillo. 

VI. A line connecting the Tehuantepec National Railroad with the 
frontier of Guatemala. 

VII. A line connecting- the Tehuantepec Railroad with the States of 
Tabasco and Campeche. 

VIII. Any other line which, in the opinion of the Department of 
Communications and Public Works, is of general interest and its con- 
struction an urgent necessity, provided the requirements of the law 
are complied with. 

The construction of railroads subject to the Federation shall be car- 
ried out by corporations or private individuals under concessions to 
be granted by the Executive of the Union, subject to the provisions 
of the law. Private persons to whom concessions are granted are 
empowered to form companies, the same rule being applicable to cor- 
porations. 

In order to obtain a concession for the construction of a railroad 
the petition must be made to the Department of Communications and 
Public Works, setting forth the following pomts: 

I. The terminals of the road and the intermediate points at which it 
touches either directly or by means of branches. 

II. The period within which the survey of the road is to begin. 

III. The minimum number of kilometers to be built annually. 

IV. The period within which the road is to be completed. 

V. The schedule of maximum rates to be charged for the transpor- 
tation of passengers and merchandise, for express and baggage, for 
telegraph service, and for the use of the track by other lines. 

VI. Any other facts that may be deemed expedient. 

After the proposition has been accepted, with the modifications 
deemed proper by the Department and the terms of the contract have 
been agreed upon, the applicant shall make a deposit in the general 
Treasury of the Federation at the rate of $150 per kilometer in securi- 
ties of the consolidated public debt. If this provision is not complied 
with, the application shall be regarded as having been withdrawn and 
a declaration to that effect shall be made by the Department of Com- 
munications and Public Works, without subsequent appeal. 

After the deposit has been made the contract will be signed and 
made public in the " Diario Oficial," the date of publication being the 
point of reckoning for all periods named in the document, unless 
otherwise specified. 

Concessions for the lines of prime importance which have not been 
granted, or which having been granted shall lapse in the future, can 
only be granted to the companies which, besides the requirements 
already expressed, shall present proof covering the following points: 

I. The existence of the company and its organization in conformity 
with the laws of the country whence the document in regard to its 



286 MEXICO. 

organization proceeds. This proof, if the company has been organ- 
ized in the Republic, shall be furnished by means of a certified copy 
of the draft (minuta) of the articles of association, which shall be raised 
to the rank of a public instrument in case the concession is granted; 
and if the company has been organized abroad, by the presentation of 
the documents required by article 24 of the Code of Commerce,^ and 
in case the concession is granted such documents need onlj^ to be pro- 
tocolized, registered, and stamped. 

II. That the company has, either on hand or assured, the subscrip- 
tion and payment of the capital necessary for the survej^ of the land, 
the preparation of plans, and the fulfillment of the obligations selj 
forth in the law. 

If the proposition is accepted, the procedure shall be as stated above, 
but the deposits shall be at the rate of $200 per kilometer in securities 
of the consolidated public debt. 

The construction of other lines shall be subject to bids, as provided 
b}^ law. 

Railroad concessions carry with them the following rights: 

I. The right to construct the railroad. 

II. The right to build a telegraph and telephone line. 

III. The right to exploit the railroad and the telegraph or telephone 
line for the entire period of the concession. 

The telegraph or telephone line built under the concession can only 
be exploited for the service of the road, of passengers traveling 
thereon, and of shippers or consignees of freight on matters connected 
with their business with the road. The telegraph line can not be 
operated in any other manner nor on other service, except with the 
authorization of the Department of Communications and Public Works, 
which at all times shall have the right to revoke the authorization 
granted. 

The system of traction to be used shall be set forth in the concession. 

Railroads constructed within the territory of a State and not com- 
ing under either of the classes mentioned shall, from the moment they 
join or connect with a road under the Federation, become subject to 
all Federal laws and regulations, as provided by law. 

The deposit that is made guarantees the performance of the obliga- 
tions contracted b}^ the concessionaire, and shall be returned to him 
when all the works covered by the concession have been completed. 

^Article 24 of the Code of Commerce provides that "foreign companies desirous 
of establishing themselves or their branch offices in the Republic shall present and 
file in the register's ofiice, besides the proofs of the protocolization of their statutes, 
contracts, and other documents referring to their organization, their inventory or last 
balance sheets, if they have any, and a certificate showing that such companies have 
been duly organized and authorized in accordance with the laws of their respective 
countries. This certificate must be given by the Mexican minister residing at the 
respective places, and in his absence, by the Mexican consul. 



MEXICO. 287 

Until such time as the deposit is returned, and unless it has been for- 
feited, the interest coupons shall belong and shall be delivered to the 
concessionaire. 

Concessions may be transferred wholly or in part to other companies 
or individuals, with the consent of the Department of Communications 
and Public Works, according to the provisions of the law. 

Under no circumstances can the company transfer, mortgage, or in 
any other manner dispose of a concession or any of the rights which 
it carries, or of any of the property or belongings connected with said 
line, to a foreign Government or State, and any sale, assignment, trans- 
fer, or mortgage infringing this rule shall be null and void. A com- 
pany may not allow a foreign Government or State to become a part- 
ner, and any agreement infringing this rule shall likewise be null and 
void. All shares, securites, or bonds issued by the company and 
acquired by a foreign Government or State shall, from the moment of 
such acquisition, be deprived of all force and value for their holder, 
who shall forfeit to the nation all the rights attached to such shares, 
securities, or bonds. 

Concessions for railroad lines shall not be granted for a term exceed- 
ing ninety- nine years. At the close of this period the railroad, with 
all its appurtenances, shall pass, in good condition and free from all 
incumbrance, into the control of the nation; but the Government must 
purchase the rolling stock, appliances, chattels, and equipment that 
may be necessary to continue the operation of the road, paying in cash 
the price of valuation by appraisers appointed as provided by the law. 
The Government shall be entitled to the earnings of the railroad dur- 
ing the five years preceding the date of the reversion, to be employed 
for the benefit of the road in case the companj^ fails to comply with 
the provisions regarding its transfer in good condition. 

No railroad concession implies a monopoly for the benefit of the 
concessionaire, but a stipulation ma}^ be introduced into concessions 
to the effect that within ten years no other concession shall be granted 
for a line parallel to the former, wholly or in part within a territory 
of a width to be determined on both sides of the road, or that no sub- 
sidy, exemption from taxes, or other franchises shall be allowed to 
lines for the construction of which within said territory a concession 
may be granted. 

The Executive of the Union, in compliance with this law, may at all 
times and in concert or under an agreement with the companies, add 
to, modify, or rescind existing railroad concessions. 

A concession shall lapse for any of the following reasons: 
I. Failure to commence the surveys within the time specified. 
II. Failure to construct, in a year, the number of kilometers 
required by the concession, or to complete the line within the period 
allowed by said concession. 



2S8 MEXICO. 

III. The total or partial interruption of tne public service of the 
road, save in the case of fortuitous or unforeseen circumstances, as 
defined b}^ law. 

IV. The sale of the concession or of any of the rights granted by it 
to a company or individual, without the previous consent of the 
Department of Communications and Public Works. 

V. The transfer, sale, or mortgage of the concession, or of any of 
the rights conveyed, or any of the properties attached thereto, to a 
foreign Government or State, or the admission of such a partner in 
the enterprise. 

In order that the circumstance may be declared to be fortuitous, 
the company must present to the Department of Communications and 
Public Works, within three months from the occurrence, a written 
statement, detailing the event and showing proof thereof, as provided 
by the law. The Department of Communications and Public Works, in 
view of the company's statement, shall decide whether or not the con- 
cession is thereby forfeited. If the decision rendered is in favor of 
the company, an extension of time, at the discretion of the Govern- 
ment, shall be allowed in which the company may fulfill the obligations 
entailed by the concession. 

The concessionaires are entitled to enter into contracts with other 
individuals or companies for the construction of the road, but these 
contracts shall have no recognition from the nation until they are sub- 
mitted to the examination and approval of the Department of Com- 
munications and Public Works. Failure to comply with this does 
not entail a forfeiture of the concession, but the constructing com- 
pany and the concessionaire shall be considered as one and the same 
for all legal purposes connected with the nation ; and for all such pur- 
poses, as well as for all business appertaining to the construction of 
the road and the concession in which the nation has an interest, only 
the original concessionaire shall be recognized. 

Whenever a concession is forfeited, the concessionaire shall lose his 
deposit, which reverts to the nation. When the concession is for- 
feited for any of the causes mentioned in Paragraphs I and II, above, 
the company shall preserve the right of ownership of the buildings it 
may have erected, the portion of the railroad and telegraph line it may 
have built, and to the materials, machinery, and utensils employed in 
the operation of the road, according to the law. 

In the event of the public service of a railroad being interrupted, 
wholly or partially, the Department of Communications and Public 
Works shall, at once and at the expense of the company, take steps to 
assure its continuance provisionally, as provided by this law. In the 
event of forfeiture for the cause mentioned in Paragraph IV, the 
company shall lose the right to operate the railroad, telegraph, and 
telephone line, the Government succeeding to that right and entering 



MEXICO. 



289 



into possession of the line and its appurtenances, a receiver being 
appointed, as provided by the Code of Commerce, and the operation 
of the line continued under Government auspices. The next step 
will be the judicial sale, at public auction, of the property mentioned, 
and the Executive shall determine the conditions under which the sale 
is to take place. 

In the case of forfeiture for the cause mentioned in Paragraph V, 
the company shall forfeit to the nation the portion of the road already 
constructed, but the nation will be liable for the mortgage and other 
debts contracted prior to the declaration of forfeiture, to an extent 
proportionate to the value of the property. Within six months from 
the time that the Executive takes possession of the property, it shall 
decide whether the nation shall assume the responsibility mentioned 
and undertake the administration of the road. 

The declaration of forfeiture shall be made through the administra- 
tive channel by the Executive, after the company has been heard, for 
which purpose it shall be allowed a specific period to give such expla- 
nation as may be deemed pertinent. At the expiration of this period, 
the Executive shall, if deemed necessary, make further inquiries and 
announce its decision. As soon as the concession of a railroad is 
declared to have been forfeited, all the privileges and exemptions 
granted by the concessions shall cease. 

A declaration of forfeiture can only be contested before the courts 
for one of the following reasons: 

I. That the reason adduced does not constitute a legal ground for a 
declaration of forfeiture. 

II. That the fact or omission adduced as a reason for forfeiture is 
not as stated. 

If the declaration of forfeiture is not contested before a competent 
court within the period of one month from its communication to the 
company, it will be assumed that the company acquiesces in the deci- 
sion of forfeiture, and no further action will be taken. 

Railroads may, in the concessions, be divided into several sections, 
so that the forfeiture of some will not affect the continuance of others, 
and each section between its terminal points must be considered as a 
separate line to be operated independently. 

In cases where there is no ground for a declaration of forfeiture, 
but where there is sufficient ground for annulment of the concession, 
the deposit above mentioned shall be forfeited, but during the suit, 
and until the final sentence of annulment is rendered, the company 
shall continue to enjoy all the rights appertaining to it under the con- 
cession, without detriment to provisional and precautionary measures, 
when, according to law, there is occasion for them. 

As regards the nationality and legal status of companies, those whose 
651a 19 



290 MEXICO. 

object i.s to construct or to operate, or to construct and operate a rail- 
road, may be organized in the Mexican Republic or abroad; but imder 
all circumstances such companies shall be regarded as Mexican, even 
though the entire organization is foreign. Said companies shall be 
subject to the courts of the Republic, whether Federal or local, in all 
matters coming under the jurisdiction of the courts, and foreigners 
and their successors who shall be interested either as shareholders, 
employees, or in any other capacity, shall in all cases be regarded as 
Mexicans in so far as the companies' affairs are concerned. On no 
pretext whatever may rights as foreigners be urged with respect to 
titles {titulos) and affairs connected with the companies, and only such 
rights and the means of enforcing them shall be enjoyed as are granted 
by the Mexican law to citizens of the Republic; consequently foreign 
diplomatic agents may not interfere in any way. 

Companies shall have one or more attorneys in the capital of the 
Republic, who shall be empowered to deal with the Federal authori- 
ties and other public officers in all matters relating to the concessions, 
but the headquarters of all companies shall be at the town named in 
the concessions, this, however, not preventing the establishment of 
agencies in different parts of the country or abroad. 

In cases when the board of directors of railroad companies reside 
abroad, a local board, resident at the headquarters of the company 
within the Republic, or at such place as shall be designated in the 
concession, shall be appointed, which board shall be regarded as part 
of the board of directors. 

For the issuance of shares and bonds, the following rules shall be 
observed: 

I. After the plans and profiles have been drawn up, an estimate shall 
be made on the cost of the entire work. 

II. On the basis of that estimate and of the rights of the concession- 
aire, tlie capital in shares and bonds shall be determined with the 
approval of the Government. 

III. The provisions of the foregoing paragraph do not prevent, 
pending the preparation of the estimates, the issuance of shares and 
bonds or the acquisition of funds by any other means for the construe 
tion of the road. 

IV. The amount of the capital in shares and bonds may be increased, 
even after the preparation of the estimate and after the capital has 
been fixed, provided that the necessities of construction or operation 
require it. 

V. The right to issue shares and bonds does not imply that by these 
means alone the company may obtain funds, as to that end all legal 
methods may be employed. 

VI. The company is obliged to inform the Department of Communi- 



MEXICO. 291 

cations and Public Works of all the steps taken and all the contracts 
entered into pursuant to the rights conferred on it by this article. 

All contracts entered into abroad are subject to the laws of the 
Republic, as provided by this law. Contracts for the acquisition of 
material for the equipment of the railroad and rolling stock are sub- 
ject to special regulations. 

Railroads, being works of public utility, are in consequence entitled 
to condemn (expropriate) land and construction material belonging to 
private individuals which may be necessary for the establishment and 
repair of the road and its appurtenances, stations, and other annexes. 
This, however, does not include the right of condemnation of water 
rights, without special authorization in each case by the Executive. 
The process of condemnation is subject to certain regulations, as pre- 
scribed by the law. 

In the matter of franchises and exemptions granted to concession- 
aires, the law provides that foreign capital employed in the construc- 
tion and operation of railways, and the loans contracted for that pur- 
pose, be placed under the guardianship of the nation and are exempt 
from reprisal, confiscations, and attachments in case of war. The 
capital and property of a railroad company shall be exempt from all 
Federal and local taxation save the stamp tax, provided they are 
applied directly to the purposes set forth in the concession. The stamp 
tax applies only to the documents, acts, contracts, and transactions to 
which the company is a party. The general routes of communication, 
their appurtenances, the capital, shares, bonds, etc., employed, shall 
at no time be taxable by the States of the Federation. 

A company may import, free of all import and custom dues, all 
fixed material for the line, rolling stock, telegraphic materials, cars, 
etc., necessary in the construction and operation of the line, also for 
maintenance and repairs of the railroad and telegraph line, for a period 
not exceeding five years, said articles also being exempt from all taxes, 
whether Federal or local, for a like period. If any of these materials 
shall be sold or applied to other uses, the Department of Finance shall 
exact the payment of the duties, subject to the provisions of the law. 

The lines of prime importance may be subsidized; and in certain 
cases, as provided by law, other lines also. Subsidies shall be subject 
to the following rules: 

I. No subsidies for the construction of railroads shall be granted 
when the payment of said subsidies can not be covered by the budget 
appropriations available for that purpose, except in the cases pro- 
vided by law. 

II. The subsidy shall be paid with respect to sections of at least 
100 kilometers, constructed and accepted by the Department of Com- 
munications and Public Works, in the amount and according to the 



292 MEXICO. 

conditions to be determined in each particular case, except that if 
when the line is completed its last section measures less than 100 
kilometers, the amount appertaining- to that section shall be paid upon 
its completion. 

111. The subsidy shall be paid in bonds of the public debt, the 
Executive reserving the right of deciding in each case in which of the 
two following forms pajnuent is to be effected: 

(a) In 5 per cent bonds of the redeemable debt. 

(b) In bonds of other descriptions, according to the conditions and 
terms to be determined. 

Land belonging to the nation, and needed by the company, shall, 
with the approval of the Executive, be made over to the company 
without any paj^ment whatever. The company shall also be entitled, 
under the same conditions, to take from lands belonging to the nation, 
and from its rivers, all materials that may be necessary for the con- 
struction, operation, and repair of the road and its appurtenances, but, 
in taking out such material, the company is subject to the laws and 
regulations bearing upon the case. 

If the road terminal be at a seaport the compan}^ shall be entitled to 
build one or more wharves, subject to the rules and conditions deter- 
mined in the concession. Deposits and other mineral substances which, 
according to the mining law, do not belong to the owner of the soil, 
and which -may be found during the construction of a railroad, shall 
be the property of the company, provided it is denounced within three 
months from the date of discovery. 

Officials and employees of railroad lines are exempt from military 
service, except in case of foreign war. 

Railroads shall be constructed in accordance with the provisions of 
the railway ordinances now in force or to be issued in the future. 

The policy of a road, as expressed in its laws and regulations, shall 
provide suitable measures for its maintenance and safet3^ but no rail- 
road can be put into operation without having been previously inspected 
as provided by the ordinances, and accepted by the Department of 
Communications and Public Works. 

The tariffs of railroad transportation shall include the rates for which 
transportation shall be effected, and the conditions according to which 
companies bind themselves to perform this service according to the 
provisions of the law. General regulations governing the transport 
of passengers and freight, and the liability of railroad companies for 
possible damages sustained thereby, are f ull}^ covered by Chapter VII 
of the law. In return for the concession to construct railroads the 
nation reserves certain privileges or rights, touching reduced tariff 
rates for the transportation of colonists and immigrants, employees, 
agents, and officials travelling on public business; for the transporta- 



MEXICO. 293 

tion of troops, ammunition, etc. ; the transmission of telegraph mes- 
sages; the free transport of mail and mail officials; the use of special 
trains at any time, and certain other privileges, as set forth in the law. 

On all railroads the Executive possesses the right of inspection, 
exercised either directly by means of the Department of Communi- 
cations and Public Works or by means of special agents. 

Any infringement of this law is punishable by a fine of from |20 to 
12,000 and imprisonment, according to the circumstances of the case. 

The law also defines what is considered a crime or a fraud against 
property and prescribes the consequent penalties. 

The railroads dependent on the Federation are subject exclusively 
to the Federal powers, the legislative, executive, and judicial branches 
having each their respective jurisdictions. Questions which may 
arise concerning the interpretation or fulfilment of concessions or of 
any of the stipulations contained therein, shall be decided by compe- 
tent tribunals of the Eepublic and by the civil code of the Federal 
District. 

The great difference in the relative cost of construction of telegraph 
and railway lines may undoubtedly be considered as the reason of the 
more extended development of the former means of communication. 
In 1877, Federal telegraph lines measured 7,927 kilometers; in 1892, 
35,500 kilometers had been built, while in 1896, a network of lines 
45,000 kilometers in length traversed the Republic under Govern- 
ment control. At the present time there is not a State capital nor 
any fairly important town which does not enjoy the benefit of tele- 
graphic communication with the outside world. 

In Mexico, this branch of public service is divided into four classes: 
Federal telegraph lines, railroad telegraphs, lines belonging to pri- 
vate parties, and those which are State property. On June 1, 1891, 
the Federal service was organized into 20 districts {zonas)^ each under 
the immediate supervision of an inspector, the total number of offices 
being 280 and the extent of lines 29,305 kilometers. About the same 
time the Government purchased the Jalisco line, 2,514 kilometers in 
extent, making a total of 31,819 kilometers. On December 31, 1897, 
according to the latest available official data, Mexico contained 19 Fed- 
eral telegraphic zonas^ with 327 offices and a total length of line 
measuring 45,435 kilometers, 968 meters, the entire telegraph system 
at that time being as follows : 

Kilometers. 

Federal lines 45,435.968 

State lines 8,321.683 

Private lines 4,730.980 

Railroad lines 9, 761. 611 

Total , 68,250.242 



294 MEXICO. 

The State telegraph lines were distributed as follows: 



state. 



Total 
length. 



Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

M6xico 

Michoac^n 

Morelos 

Oaxaca 

San Luis Potosi 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tamaulipas 

Yucatto 

Zacatecas 




The private telegraph lines amounted to 10 in number, with 44 
offices, measuring 1,805.248 kilometers, while the cable lines com- 
prised 2,925.732 kilometers, as follows: 

Submarine cable: 

Kilometers. 

Tampico to Galveston 791, 783 

Tampico to Veracruz 395, 891 

Veracruz to Coatzacoalcos 207, 601 

Salina Cruz to La Libertad 698,442 

Land line: 

Mexico to Veracruz 429,687 

Coatzacoalcos to Salina Cruz 402, 328 

The railroad telegraph lines were divided thus: 

Kilometers. 

Ferrocarril Mexicano de Veracruz 1, 080, 710 

Ferrocarril Nacional Mexicano 1, 699, 790 

Ferrocarril Central Mexicano 2, 932, 450 

Ferrocarril Internacional Mexicano 989, 440 

Ferrocarril Mexicano del Sur 367, 000 

Ferrocarril Interocednico 783, 607 

Ferrocarril Mexico, Cuernavaca y Pacffico 74, 385 

Ferrocarril Mexicano del Norte 130, 260 

Ferrocarril Nacional de Tehuantepec 309, 617 

Ferrocarril de Veracruz A Alvarado 70, 410 

Ferrocarril de Monterey al Golfo 624, 640 

Ferrocarril de Sonora 422, 302 

Ferrocarril de Tula 70, 000 

Ferrocarril de la Companfa Constructora Nacional Mexicana 142, 000 

Ferrocarril de Vanegas, Cedral, Matehuala y Rio Verde 65, 000 

Total 9,761,611 

Of late years the Federal Government has leased certain lines of 
its telegraph system to 20 different States, thereby saving the operat- 
ing expenses of the lines without detriment to the public service. 

The Republic is connected by telegraph with both Guatemala and 



MEXICO. 295 

the United States, and in December, 1897, the President of Mexico 
approved and proclaimed a contract between his Government and the 
Western Union Telegraph Company and the Mexican Telegraph 
(cable) Company, both of which are American corporations, whereby 
communication by wire between Mexico and foreign countries is to 
be carried on solely by means of the Federal telegraph system, in 
connection with those of the companies named. By the terms of the 
contract the Mexican Telegraph Company binds itself to pay to the 
Mexican Government 15 per cent of its annual profits, derived both 
from land and cable lines, it being further guaranteed by the company 
that said 15 per cent shall not amount to less than $20,000, gold, per 
annum during the term of the contract. 

The number of telegraphic messages sent annually has steadily 
increased from 1,101,916 in 1891-92, to 1,865,303 in 1897. 

Telephone service throughout the country is excellent and daily 
improving. On December 31, 1897, the total extent of the telephonic 
system in the Republic was as follows: 

Kilometers. 

State city lines 1,107.158 

State suburban lines 6, 454.'992 

Private city lines... 1,953.675 

Private suburban lines 5, 335. 584 

Mexican Telephone Company 3, 260. 454 

Railroad telephones 1, 604. 079 

Private individuals' suburban lines 5,780.222 

Total 25,496.164 

The number of State city offices was 1,237, the number of offices 
credited to State suburban lines being 551 and to the Mexican Tele- 
phone Company 2,031. 

The combined length of telephone and telegraph lines throughout 
the Republic on the date named was 93,746.486 kilometers. 

Prior to 1877 Mexico may be said to have been isolated so far as 
activity in maritime commerce or communication was concerned, but 
since that time the Mexican Government has given great impetus to 
sea transportation by granting subsidies and special concessions to 
companies and individuals. 

Up to 1896, 21 steamship lines had contracts with the Government 
for carrying the mails, of which 10 were Mexican, 4 American, 4 Eng- 
lish, 1 Spanish, 1 French, and 1 German. Eight of these lines enjoy 
subsidies ranging from $75 to |2,000 for the round trip, or from $6,600 
to $15,000 per annum. The other lines enjoy certain privileges and 
exemptions. 

Latest official statistics (1897) report the following steamship lines 
as under contract with the Government to perform postal service: 

The New York and Chiba Steamship Coin;pany {Ainerican). — This 



296 MEXICO. 

company has no subvention, but enjoys special exemptions. The 
steamers are required, under the terms of the contract, to make 52 
regular trips to and from Progreso, New York, Habana, Veracruz, 
Tuxpam, and Tampico, and Frontera, or Frontera and Campeche 
alternately. 

The German Imperial Mail {Germa/ii). — This line enjoys special 
exemptions, and is required to make at least 1 monthly trip to and 
from Hamburg, Havre, Veracruz, Tampico, and Progreso. 

Ha/rrison Line {English). — This line enjoys special exemptions, and 
is required to make at least 1 trip per month to and from Liverpool 
and Veracruz, with the privilege of stopping, on either trip, at Tam- 
pico, Tuxpam, Frontera, Campeche, and Progreso; also, at Barbados, 
St. Thomas, Trinidad, La Guaira, Puerto Cabell o, Curasao, Santa 
Marta, Sabanilla, Cartagena, Port au Prince, Kingston, Colon, and 
New Orleans. 

Miinson Liiw {Avierican). — This line enjoys special exemptions and 
is required to make at least 1 round trip per month to and from 
New York, Philadelphia, or any other port of the United States on 
the Atlantic coast, and Tampico, Veracruz, and Progreso, with stops 
on either trip at Alvarado, Tlacatalpam, Laguna, and other Mexican 
Gulf ports. 

West India and Pacific Bteamhshijp Compa/ny {Englisli). — This line 
enjoys special exemptions, making 12 trips per annum with the same 
itinerary as the Harrison line. 

Oompaftia Transatlcintica de Barcelona [Spanish). — This line enjoys 
special exemptions so long as its steamers touch at Mexican ports. It 
is required to make 12 trips per annum to and from Veracruz, 
Frontera, Campeche, Progreso, Tampico, Havana, Corunna, Santan- 
der, Cadiz, Barcelona, Havre, and New York, connecting with the 
other lines of the company. 

Atlanvtic and Gulf of Mexico Stea/inship Conijyany (American). — 
This line enjoys special exemptions and is required to make at least 3 
trips per month to and from either Mobile or Pensacola and Mexican 
Gulf ports. 

Coinjpagnie Generale Transatlantique {FrencK). — This line enjoys 
special privileges and makes 12 trips per annum according to schedule, 
touching at Veracruz, several of the West India islands, Havre, St. 
Nazaire, and Bordeaux. 

Kno^s Prince Line {English). — This line enjoys special exemptions 
and is required to make at least 2 monthly trips to and from Antwerp 
and Glasgow, Progreso, Veracruz, Tampico, New Orleans, Barcelona, 
Genoa, Marseilles, and Leghorn, with the privilege of touching at 
Laguna, Coatzacoalcos, Minatitlan, and Tuxpam. 

Compania de JSfavegacion en los Rios de la Costa de Sota/oento de 
Veracruz {Mexican). — This line enjoys a subsidy of $6,600 per annum 



MEXICO. 



297 



and is required to make at least 20 monthly trips on the Papaloapam, 
San Juan Michoapam, and Alonzo Lazaro rivers as per contract. 

Oompania de Namgacion en los Bios Grijalva^ TJsumacinta and PaU- 
zada {Mexican). — This line has a subsidy of |9,000 per annum and is 
required to make 9 trips per month on the rivers named. 

Vapor es Correos Mexicanos de Bornano Berreteaga {Mexican). — This 
line enjoys special exemptions and makes 1 trip per month between 
Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Frontera, Laguna, Campeche, Progreso, and 
to Tampico and intermediate points. 

Compafiia Industrial de Transportes {Mexicari). — This line receives a 
subsidy of $75 for round trip and is required to make 72 trips per 
annum on the rivers Gonzalez and Mezcalapa. 

Compania Colonizadora de la Costa Oriental de Yucatwn {Mexican). — 
This line has received special grants and is required to make 3 
round trips per month to and from Progreso, Holbox, and Isla de 
Mujeres. 

Pacific Mail Steamship Compa/ny {American). — This line receives a 

-subsidy of $1,250 per month and is required to make 2 monthly trips. 

It connects all the ports of the Pacific coast of Mexico with San 

Francisco on the north, with Central American ports on the south, 

and also connects with a New York service via Colon. 

Compania del Ferrocarril Occidental {Mexican). — This line receives 
a subsidy of $3,500 per round trip, being required to make 18 trips 
yearly between Guaymas, La Paz, Altata, Mazatlan, San Bias, Man- 
zanillo,Acapulco, Puerto Angel, Salina Cruz, Tonala, and San Benito. 

Loioer California Development Compmiy {English) . — This line receives 
a subsidy of $150 per round trip during the continuance of the contract 
and is required to make 72 trips per year between San Diego, Todos 
Santos, and San Quintin. 

Pacific Coast Stea/juship Company {Americcm). — This line also receives 
a subsidy amounting to $150 per round trip, the service required being 
at least 1 monthly trip between San Francisco, Cal. , and Guaymas, 
touching at Ensenada de Todos Santos, Bahia de la Magdalena, San 
Jose del Cabo, Mazatlan, and La Paz. 

Johnston Line {American). — This line enjoys special exemptions and 
makes 2 trips per month between New York, Baltimore, Veracruz, 
and Tampico. 

The Mexican steamers Yaqui and Topoloha/mpo., belonging to Luis 
A. Martinez, receive a subsidy of $200 each per round trip and are 
required to make 3 trips per month between Guaymas, La Paz, 
Topolobampo, and intermediate points. 

The Mexican steamer Don Lorenzo., belonging to Luis E. Torres, 
receives a subsidy of $100 per month, 5 monthly trips being required 
for the service between Medano, Huamuchil, Potam, Torin, Bacum, 
and Cocont. 



298 MEXICO. 

There are other lines of importance which ply in Mexican waters, 
but enjoy no privileges whatever. Among these lines are: 

Morgan Line: Steamers leave Morgan City, La., for Veracruz, 
stopping at New Orleans, Galveston, and Matanioros twice a month. 

Maldonado Company, which makes from 12 to 30 trips yearly between 
New York and Progreso, and New Orleans and Progreso. 

Steamers Camjpechano and Ihei'o make monthly trips between Vera- 
cruz and Progreso, stopping at Frontera, Laguna, Champoton, Cam- 
peche, and Celestum. 

Royal Mail Steam Packet Company (English), making 24 trips 
annually between Veracruz and English ports. 

Hamburg-American Packet Company (German), touching once or 
twice a month at Veracruz for European ports. 

The Sonora Railway Company runs two steamers twice a month 
between Guaymas, La Paz, Santa Rosalia, Agiabampo, Topolobampo, 
Mazatlan, Perihuete, San Bias, and Manzanillo. 

A great number of concessions have been granted by the Govern- 
ment since 1897 to companies purposing to establish new steamship 
lines on both coasts, all of which promise to add greatly to the effi- 
ciency of the service between the ports on their respective itineraries. 

The Mexican Government has spared no effort to add, in every way 
possible, to the efficiency of the postal service of the Republic, and at 
times this has been a very onerous task. In 1885 the Government 
was confronted with a large disproportion between the receipts and 
expenditures in the service, being indebted in large amounts to pub- 
lishers of periodicals,^ mail contractors, and to nations with which 
Mexico had accounts connected with the transport of mail matter. 
These debts have all been paid up and the service is to-day in a flourish- 
ing condition, and, though not a source of revenue to the treasury, is at 
least able to pay its own expenses. 

Prior to 1877 there were throughout the entire Republic but 53 
central and 269 branch post-offices; in 1887 the number had risen to 
313 and 685 respectively; in 1894, to 483 and 974; in 1895, to 475 and 
974, while on December 31, 1897, the service was represented by 523 
central stations, 1,091 branch offices, and 19 substations. 

The compilation of regular postal statistics in the Republic dates 
from 1893-94, the basis of which was the postal movement of a month 
of 28 days multiplied by 13, the result not giving correct figures. 
Mexican figures show that the number of pieces of mail matter handled 
by the postal authorities of the country amounted in 1878-79 to 
5,992,611; in 1888-89 to 27,429,081; in 1892 to 122,821,359, while in 
1894-95 the number is given as 24,773,636 only. This apparent fall 

' Under the Mexican regulations postmasters act as collectors of subscriptions and 
advertising bills, etc., due the publishers of newspapers. 



MEXICO. 299 

ing off is due to the fact that in the years preceding 1894r-95 the entire 
postal movement, that is, mail matter received and sent out, was 
included in the estimate, while for the latter period only such matter 
as was sent out was reckoned. 
From 1894-95 to 1896-97 the movement has been as follows: 

First-class (letters) and registered matter: Pieces. 

1894-95 24,773,636 

1895-96... 30,467,229 

1896-97 29,887,705 

Printed matter, samples, and postal parcels (second, third, fourth, and 

fifth classes) : 

Kilograms. 

1894-95 1,107,755 

1895-96 1,922,741 

1896-97 1,711,778 

The revenues and expenditures for the Mexican postal service from 
1887-88 to 1894-95, according to the latest available official data, were 
as follows : 



Years. 


Revenues. 


Expenditures. 


1887-88 




1805,434 
894,007 
1,018,076 
1,098,298 
1, 142, 181 
1,171,890 
1,184,331 
1,358,326 


$905,318 
1,013,505 
1,072,376 


1888-89 


1889-90 


1890-91 


1,148,032 
1, 211, 226 


1891-92 


1892-93 


1, 219, 499 
1,204,317 
1,268,343 


1893-94 


1894r-95 





Mexico was a party signatory to the Universal Postal Convention 
of Paris on June 1, 1878, and has since entered into conventions and 
parcel-post agreements with the following nations in the manner 
indicated: 

United States. — Postal convention, April 4, 1887; convention for the 
exchange of parcels containing merchandise through the mails, April, 
1888; regulations governing these two conventions, December 29, 1888; 
regulations governing fiscal officers in connection with postal authori- 
ties (in fulfillment of the postal treaty of April 28, 1888), December 
30, 1888. 

Germany. — Parcels-post convention. May 24, 1892. 

France. — Parcels-post convention, December 10, 1891; regulations 
governing the same, January 22, 1892. 

Great Britain and Ireland. — Parcels-post convention, February 15, 
1889; regulations governing the same, March 12, 1890; regulations 
governing fiscal officers in connection with postal authorities, in the 
fulfillment of the postal treaty of March 12, 1890. 

Among the other improvements introduced in the postal service 
of the Republic may be mentioned the postal money-order system, the 
limit in some post-offices being $30 and in others 



300 



MEXICO. 



During the year 1899 there were 545 post-offices in the Republic, 
1,225 postal ag-encies, and 96 railway post-offices, making a total of 
1,886 offices. There were 2,629 post-office clerks, 990 messengers, and 
4,437 carriers, making a total of 7,956 employees. The extent of the 
postal service was 11,664 kilometers by rail, 18,677 by steamer, and 
58,606 by ordinary roads, making a total of 88,846 kilometers. The 
receipts for the year were $1,696,818.66, being $1,033,427.61 in excess 
of the receipts for the years 1878 and 1879. The amount of mail mat- 
ter carried during last year was 122,617,116 pieces, an increase of 
116,024,483 in twenty years. 



CHAPTER XV. 

PTJBIilC liAND— COLONIZATION AND IMMIGRATION LAWS. 

Mexico may be divided into three regions, wliich the Mexiccm Finan- 
cial Review calls, respectively, the hacienda country, the pueblo coun- 
try, and the free country. 

The first-named comprises the greater part of the central plateau, 
many of the temperate valleys situated on the slopes or terraces of 
this plateau, nearly all of the Gulf coast, and many points on the 
Pacific. 

The iniehlo or community holdings lie toward the southern part of 
the country. 

The free country, or public lands, so called because of the fact that 
few if any haciendas ov pueblos exist there, is situated in the north of 
the Republic. 

As regards the central plateau, it is really marvelous that its lands 
retain their fertility, considering their great productiveness, for hun 
dreds of years. The only way this can be accounted for is that the 
system of irrigation there in vogue yearly resupplies the soil with 
natural fertilizing matter. 

Previous to the conquest this very land had to provide food for at 
least twice the existing population of the country, and was producing 
for more than six centuries unceasingly and without fertilizers. 
Strange, indeed, then, that it has not become sterile. But it is said 
that the day is fast approaching when the fecundity of this soil will 
vanish. Dryness and barrenness are already becoming evident in cer- 
tain portions of the table-lands; but irrigation companies are being 
organized steadily, and will undoubtedly prevent this undesirable 
tendency. 

The almost virgin land, and that which invites the energetic arm of 
the careful husbandman, lies on the east and on the west, toward the 
coasts, and when the railroads now being constructed shall have united 
one and the other points many fertile valleys will be in a position to 
bring forth two and three crops a year. 

The free, or public, lands are situated mostly in parts of the States 
of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Sinaloa, and Sonora. Immense 
tracts are here almost uninhabited, and in the western Sierra Madre 
the plains reach down to the Tropics. These lands were formerly set- 
tled upon by religious orders, or were held by officers of the Spanish 

301 



302 ' MEXICO. 

Crown. After the war of independence and the escheating to the 
State of ecclesiastical holdings thc}^ became public lands, and are what 
are now called terrenos haldios. The nation, under laws to that effect 
enacted on July 20, 1863, and March 26, 1894, is having these lands 
survej^ed and measured, giving to the companies doing the surveying 
one-third of the land surveyed, and disposing of the rest, some gratui- 
tously to towns, as commons, and to private parties and companies at 
fixed rates. Some 28,211,607 acres have thus been disposed of since 
1867 up to December 31, 1895, and the Government still retains in the 
neighborhood of 25,000,000 acres. For the lands sold the public treas- 
ury has received $2,508,849.04 up to the date mentioned. From July 
1 to December 31, 1897, there were public lands sold in eight States, 
under the two laws referred to, to the extent of 90,858.67 acres, pro- 
ducing 130,755.13. 

The land in the north is generally laid out in squares containing 
from 4,000 to 6,000 acres. 

The climate of this section greatly resembles that of the south of 
Europe, and is well adapted to colonization. 

As has been said, the pueblo system prevails nearly everywhere in 
the south of the country. 

The great question in Mexico has been, and to a considerable extent 
still is, water. The country, excepting the lowlands of the Gulf, is 
dry, and has been likened to Algeria and Egypt. 

The last law relating to the occupation of public lands was promul- 
gated on March 26, 1894 and is in substance as follows: 

All lands in the Republic are considered as public (baldios) which 
have not been utilized for public purposes nor legally ceded to indi- 
viduals or corporations authorized to receive them. 

Every inhabitant of lawful age and contractual capacity of the 
Republic has the right to denounce or preempt public land in any 
part thereof, to an unlimited extent, except natives or naturalized citi- 
zens of bordering nations, who can not through any title acquire land 
in any State or Territory bordering on their country. The privilege 
hereby granted in nowise repeals the limitations of laws now or here- 
after to be enacted relating to the acquisition of real estate by aliens. 

The Executive shall establish, by decree to be published in January 
of each year, the schedule of prices of public lands in each State, the 
Federal District, and the Territories. This schedule shall remain in 
force during the fiscal year next succeeding its publication. 

The following lands can not be alienated through any title whatsoever: 

1. The seashores. 

2. The shore lines extending 20 meters back of high-water mark 
along the coasts of the mainland and islands. 

3. A strip 10 meters wide along each bank of navigable rivers and 
5 meters wide along the banks of smaller streams capable of floating 
any marketable substance. 



MEXICO. 



303 



■i. Lands having monumental ruins, together with the ground that 
may be declared necessary for their care and preservation. 

The denouncing of public lands must be made before the agent of 
the Department of Promotion within whose jurisdiction the land is 
situated. 

Within fifteen days after the filing of the necessary petition, the 
agent must investigate whether the land has been surveyed or is 
reserved for forests, colonies, or settlement of Indians, or otherwise. 

Every denouncement must be published in the office of the agent, 
the official paper of the State, District, or Territory where the land is 
situated, at the expense of the denouncer, at whose expense also the 
survey of the land is to be made by an expert engineer to be named 
by him with the approval of the agent. 

The survey and the plat of the land having been made and no pro- 
test having been filed, the agent will make copies of the record and 
plat and transmit the same to the Department of Promotion, through 
the governor of the State in question, for inspection. 

Should the Department find the record, plat, etc., unobjectionable, 
it will adjudicate the land in favor of the denouncer and notify him to 
pay the price thereof. 

This price is that fixed by the schedule in force at the time the 
denouncement is made, and must be paid within two months after 
notification. If this term should expire without proof of the pay- 
ment having been received at the Department, the denouncer loses the 
rights he may have acquired; otherwise the patent will be delivered 
to him. 

Should any protest be interposed, the matter will be carried to the 
court of the district within whose jurisdiction the land is situated, to 
try the issues. In such suits the district attorney will represent the 
Government. Suits of this character act as a stay of all administrative 
action until final judgment is delivered. 

Under the law, as given in substance above, the Secretary of Pro- 
motion publishes every year the prices at which Government lands 
may be purchased. In pursuance thereof the prices for such lands for 
the year 1900-1901 have been published. The following table gives 
the price per hectare (2.471 acres): 



states and Territories. 



Aguascalientes 

Campeche 

Chiapas , 

Chihuahua 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero , 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Michoacto 

Morelos , 

Nuevo Leon 



Price. 



82.00 
1.75 
2.50 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
2.00 
1.10 
2.25 
2.00 
2.50 
2.75 
4.00 
1.00 



States and Territories. 



Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

San Luis Potosi 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

Yucatdn 

Zacatecas 

Federal District 

Territory of Tepic 

Territory of Lower California 



$1.10 
3.00 
2.00 
2.25 
1.00 
1.00 
3.00 
LOO 
2.00 
2.50 
2.00 
2.00 
2.60 
2.25 
.50 



304 MEXICO. 

The price is not payable in cash but in bonds of the national debt, 
the value of which varies from time to time, the tendencj^ for the past 
three years being decidedly upward. 

Mexico has made sacrifices to induce people to its shores, but its 
efforts in this behalf have not caused any considerable influx of for- 
eigners to the country, Mexicans attribute this state of things to two 
causes, viz, the fact that free land is situated at a considerable distance 
from means of communication, and that the country is not so devoid 
of native population as is generally supposed. The Indian lives on 
very little and can therefore afford to work for such paltry wages that 
foreign immigrants can not compete with him. AVhen the general 
state of the country shall be such as to create a voluntary current of 
immigration, it is confidently believed that the Republic will reap the 
reward of its sacrifices, for it is a country where the immigrant, 
under the colonization laws, has the smallest amount of taxes to pay. 

The first steps taken in the direction of inducing aliens to seek 
Mexico's fertile fields date back to 1827. In the year 1821 a law was 
enacted entitled " Prosperidad General" (general prosperity), in which 
special reference is made to the rapid growth of the foreign colony in 
the State of Texas. In the year 1846 the then Minister of Foreign 
Affairs, Jose M. Laf ragua, presented a plan for legislation to Congress 
in which, inter alia^ he spoke of "the neglect of colonization as a 
crime of high treason," and held out the flattering but delusive hope 
of establishing innumerable colonies to contain at least 50,000 persons. 
During the imperial period Senor Robles submitted to Congress plans 
of the same sort, as did also Senor Balcarcel in 1868, and Senor Riva 
Palacio in 1877; but up to 1882 no really serious practical efforts were 
made to attract immigration, and the results obtained up to the pres- 
ent are comparatively insignificant. 

The colonization law now in force was enacted and promulgated 
on the 15th day of December, 1883. It comprises four chapters and 
thirty-one articles, the former being entitled, respectively, "Of the 
survey of lands;" "Of colonists;" "Of companies;" "General pro- 
visions." 

The provisions of this law are, in substance, as follows : 

For the purpose of securing lands suitable to the establishment of 
colonies, the Executive will cause the waste or Government lands in the 
Republic to be survej^ed, measured, subdivided, and appraised, appoint- 
ing to this end the corps of engineers he may deem necessary, and 
determining the methods to be followed. 

No subdivision shall in any case exceed 2,500 hectares (about 6,177 
acres) in extent, this being the greatest amount of land which shall be 
conveyed to any one individual of lawful age and legal capacity. 

The lands surveyed, measured, subdivided, and appraised may be 
conveyed to foreign immigrants and inhabitants of the Republic who 



MEXICO. 305 

may desire to establish themselves thereon as colonists, under the fol- 
lowing conditions: 

(1) By purchase, at the price set by the engineers and approved 
by the Department of Promotion, payable in ten years in equal install- 
ments, the first becoming due two years after the establishment of the 
colony. 

(2) By purchase, the price being paid on entry, or in installments 
on shorter time than that provided in the preceding section. 

(3) By gratuitous concession, when requested by the colonist; but 
in this case no cession shall exceed 100 hectares (about 247 acres), and 
the colonist shall receive no title to the same until heshall have shown 
that he has retained the land in his possession, and has wholly culti- 
vated it, or to an extent not less than one-tenth of the whole for five 
consecutive years. 

So soon as there shall be lands suitable for colonization under the 
conditions herein provided, the Executive shall determine which 
should be settled at once, publishing the plats thereof and the prices at 
which they shall be sold, endeavoring in every case that the sale or 
gratuitous conveyance shall be of alternate sections. The remaining 
sections shall be reserved to be sold under the conditions prescribed by 
the law when they shall be sought, or when the Executive shall so 
determine, the Executive being empowered to mortgage them for the 
purpose of raising funds which, added to the proceeds of the sale of 
sections of land, shall be exclusively destined to the carrying out of 
colonization. 

To be considered as a colonist and to be entitled to the privileges 
conferred by this law it is necessary that the colonist, in case he is a 
foreigner, shall come to the Republic provided with the certificate of 
the consular or immigration agent, issued at the request of the said 
immigrant, or of the company or corporation authorized by the 
Executive to bring colonists to the Republic. 

Should the petitioner reside in the Republic, he must apply to the 
Department of Promotion, or to the agents authorized by the said 
Department to admit colonists to the colonies, which shall be established 
in the Republic. 

In every case petitioners must present certificates of the proper 
authorities setting forth their good character and their occupation 
previous to petitioning for adtaission as colonists. 

Colonists settling in the Republic shall enjoy for the period of ten 
years, counting from the date of their establishment, the following 
privileges: 

(1) Exemption from military service. 

(2) Exemption from all taxes except municipal. 

(3) Exemption from all import or domestic duties on articles of con- 
sumption hot produced in the country, agricultural implements, tools, 

661a ^20 



306 MEXICO. 

machines, outfits, buildino- materials, household furniture, and animals 
for breeding- purposes, and thoroughbreds for the use of the colonies. 

(4) Exemption, personal and nontransferable, from export duties on 
the products of cultivation, 

(5) Premiums on praiseworthy productions, and prizes and special 
protection for the introduction of new ag"ricultural interests or 
industries. 

(6) Exemption from fees for the certification of signatures and 
issuing of passports delivered by consular agents to parties coming to 
the Republic as colonists ])y virtue of contracts entered into between 
the Government and any company or companies. 

The Department of Promotion shall determine the number and kind 
of articles which in each case shall be admitted free of duties, and the 
Finance Department shall regulate the manner of admission to prevent 
fraud and smuggling, but without retarding the prompt dispatch of 
the said articles. 

Colonists settling on lands barren of trees, and who shall prove, two 
years previous to the lapse of the period of exemption, that on a por- 
tion of their section, which shall not be less than one-tenth thereof, 
they have laid out trees to a number proportionate to the land planted 
on, shall be exempt from taxes on the whole land for one year longer, 
and, in general, shall have exemption for one year further for each 
tenth part of their land so laid out. 

The colonies shall be established under the municipal jurisdiction, 
subject, as regards the election of their authorities and the levying of 
taxes, to the general laws of the Republic and the laws of the State 
wherein they are established. The Department of Promotion may, 
however, appoint agents in said colonies for the purpose of better 
directing their labors and exacting the payment of the amounts which 
may be due to the Federation for any titles conveyed. 

Colonists are required to carry out their contracts with the Federal 
Government, or with the individuals or companies transporting or 
establishing them in the Republic. 

Every alien immigrant settling in a colony shall, at the time of such 
settlement, declare before the Federal colonization agent, notary, or 
proper judicial officer, whether he proposes to retain his nationality, 
or desires to embrace Mexican citizenship, conceded him by the third 
section of article 30 of the Constitution of the Republic. 

Colonists shall be vested with all the rights and obligations which 
to Mexican and foreigners, under like circumstances, are conceded and 
imposed by the Federal Constitution, besides the temporary exemp- 
tions conceded by this law; but all questions arising, of whatever 
character, shall be subject to the decisions of the courts of the Repub- 
lic, to the absolute exclusion of all foreign intervention. 

Colonists abandoning, without due cause, for more than a year, the 



MEXICO. 



307 



lands which shall have been sold them shall forfeit the right to said 
lands and the amounts they may have paid therefor. 

The right to a gratuitous title shall be forfeited by abandonment of 
the land or failure to cultivate it for more than six months without 
good cause. 

One section shall be ceded without cost, in localities designed by the 
Federal Government for new settlements, to Mexican or foreign col- 
onists desiring to found the same; but they shall not acquire the title 
to said section until they shall show that within two years from the 
foundation of the settlement they have erected thereon a house, for- 
feiting the right to said title in case of failure to so build. It is the 
purpose to cede such sections alternately. 

The Executive is empowered to aid colonists or immigrants, within 
the appropriations to that effect made, whenever he shall deem it 
advisable, by furnishing them expenses of transportation for them- 
selves and their baggage by sea and in the interior to the terminus of 
the railroad lines; he may further furnish them with free subsistence 
for fifteen days, and no more, in the localities he may approve, and 
also with tools, seeds, building materials, and animals for work and 
breeding; these latter advances, however, shall be repaid in the same 
manner as the price of the lands. 

The Executive may authorize companies to open up {hahilitar) waste 
lands by measuring, surveying, subdividing into sections, appraising 
and describing the same, and to transport colonists and establish them 
on said lands. 

For the purpose of obtaining the necessary authorization companies 
shall designate the waste lands they propose to occupy, their approxi- 
mate extent, and the number of colonists to be settled upon them within 
a given time. 

The proceedings incident to the demarkation or survey shall be 
authorized by the district judge within whose jurisdiction the waste 
land to be surveyed is situated, which done, and there being no adverse 
claimant, the record will be delivered to the company to be presented 
to the Department of Promotion, where the other formalities demanded 
by this law must be complied with. Should an adverse claimant present 
himself the case will be tried as hereinafter provided, the representa- 
tive of the Federal Treasury being a party thereto. 

In return for the expenses incurred by the companies in opening up 
waste lands, the Executive may cede them not more than one-third of 
the land thus opened up, or its value in money, but under the express 
conditions that they are not to convey such lands so conceded to foreigners 
not authorized to acquire them, nor in greater quantities than 2,500 
hectares, under pain of losing, in each case, the portions of land so 
conveyed in violation of said conditions, which portions shall at once 
become the property of the nation. 



308 MEXICO. 

Lands surveyed by the companies, excepting such as may be ceded 
to the same in return for expenses incurred in opening them up, shall 
be conveyed to colonists, or be reserved under the conditions before 
mentioned. 

Any authority conferred by the Executive for opening up waste 
lands shall be void and nonextendible whenever work thereon shall not 
have been commenced Avithin the term of three months. 

The Executive may contract with companies or corporations for the 
introduction into the llepublic and the establishment therein of foreign 
colonists or immigrants imder the following conditions: 

(1) The companies shall fix the exact time within which they will 
introduce a determined number of colonists. 

(2) The colonists or immigrants shall fulfill the conditions hereinbe- 
fore prescribed. 

(3) The bases of the contracts the companies may make with the 
colonies shall conform to the provisions of this law, and shall be sub- 
mitted for approval to the Department of Promotion. 

(4) The companies must guarantee to the satisfaction of the Execu- 
tive the carrying out of the obligations assumed in their contracts, 
which contracts must name the causes in which forfeiture and fines 
shall be imposed. 

Companies contracting with the Executive for the transportation to 
the Republic and settling therein of foreign colonists shall enjoy, for a 
term not to exceed twenty years, the privileges and exemptions fol- 
lowing: 

(1) The sale on long time and at low price of waste or Government 
lands for the exclusive purpose of colonizing the same. 

(2) Exemption from taxation, except the stamp tax on capital invested 
in the enterprise, 

(3) Exemption from port dues, except such as are set aside for har- 
bor improvements, to all vessels that, on the company's account, shall 
carry ten families, at least, of colonists to the Republic. 

(4) Exemption from import duties on tools, machines, building 
materials, and animals for work and breeding which shall be exclu- 
sively destined for an agricultural, mining, or industrial colony whose 
establishment shall have been authorized by the Executive, 

(5) Premiums for each family established, and a second premium for 
each family disembarked; premiums for each Mexican family estab- 
lished in a foreign colony. 

(6) Transportation of colonists at the expense of the Government on 
subsidized steamship and railroad lines. 

Foreign colonization companies shall be considered as Mexican, 
being required to have a legal domicile in one of the cities of the 
Republic, without prejudice to their having one or more abroad, and 
they are bound to have at all times a local board of directors, and one 



MEXICO. 309 

or more attorneys de facto, fully empowered to treat with the 
Executive. 

All questions arising between the Government and the companies 
shall be decided by the courts of the Republic and according to its 
laws, without any intervention whatever on the part of foreign diplo- 
matic agents. 

Private parties setting aside any portion of their lands for the pur 
pose of colonizing them with not less than ten families of foreign 
immigrants are entitled to have the same, enjoy equal privileges and 
exemptions with the colonies established by the Federal Goverement 
whenever they shall conform to the conditions imposed by the Execu 
tive to assure the success of the colony, and whenever among said 
conditions shall be one requiring said colonists to acquire, by purchase 
or cession, one section of land for cultivation. 

The Executive may provide private parties with foreign colonists by 
stipulating with them the conditions under which they are to be 
established, and may aid them by furnishing the expenses of transpor- 
tation of said colonists. 

The colonizing of the islands in both oceans shall be done by the 
Executive, subject to the provisions of this law, the Government 
reserving on each island 50 hectares of land for public use. In case 
the island should not have the superficial area necessary for the reser- 
vation herein specified, no sale of land shall be made thereon, and 
said land may only be rented on short terms. 

Colonies established on islands shall alwaj^s include Mexican families 
to a number not less than one-half of the total colonist families. 

The Executive is authorized to acquire, by purchase or cession, 
private lands, whenever he shall deem it expedient to establish colo- 
nies thereon, subject, however, to the appropriations to be made for 
this purpose. 

The question of inducing aliens to settle in Mexico has awakened 
not only the interest of the General Government, but some of the 
State governments have given it much time and thought. Foremost 
among these is the government of the State of Veracruz. On the 
25th of December, 1885, the legislature of this State passed a law 
founded upon that quoted on the preceding pages. This law author- 
ized the governor to enter into contracts with owners of suburban 
landed property for the purpose of colonizing it under the law. All 
such owners entering into a contract are entitled to a rebate on their 
taxes at the rate of $5 for ever}^ family settling on their lands who 
shall engage in agricultural and kindred pursuits. Owners of subur 
ban lands receive a premium of $5 for everj^ 15 foreign families 
established on their lands as colonists for an uninterrupted period of 
three years. Premiums are likewise offered for every new industry 
established in such colonies, and to the colonist showing the largest 



310 



MEXICO. 



area of land under cultivation. Many exemptions from taxes and 
contributions are granted. Ev^ery colony of 15 or more families 
definitely established in any locality in the State is entitled to organ- 
ize its own local police in accordance with law, and to solicit of the 
Government a subvention to carry out such public works as may be 
deemed necessary in the interest of the colony. 

Notwithstanding the inducements offered by this law, the total 
foreign population of the State of Veracruz at the beginning of the 
year 1896 was only 4,277, of which 390 were Americans, distributed 
over 18 cantons. 

Under the first-quoted law of the General Government, thirty-four 
colonies have been founded up to October 19, 1897. The colonies, 
their names, location, etc., as furnished by the Bureau of Statistics of 
the Mexican Republic under the above date, here follow: 

Colonies^ founded by the Federal Government. 



Location. 



Name of colony. 



District, etc. 



Porfirio Diaz I Juarez 

Fernandez Leal Cholula 

CArlos Paeheco ! Tlatlauqui 

Manuel Gonzalez I Huatusco 

Diez Gutierrez Ciudad del Maiz 

Aldana Municipalidad de Mexico. 

Sericicultora ' Tenancingo 



Tecate 

La Ascensi6n 

San Pablo Hidalgo . . 
San Vicente Juarez. . 
San Rafael Zaragoza 
Jiscao 



294 
8 

21 

46 
283 

21 
112 
210 
1,218 
208 
128 
278 

40 

Total 2,867 



Distrito Norte 

Bravos 

Juarez 

...:do 

....do 

Comitto 



State. 



Morelos 

Puebla 

....do 

Veracruz 

San Luis Potosi.. 
Distrito Federal . 

Mexico 

Baja California.. 

Chihuahua 

Morelos 

....do 

....do 

Chiapas 



Number of colonists. 



Mexi- 
cans. 



For- 
eigners, 



11 

437 
81 

378 
63 
89 



1,059 



Total. 



305 
445 
102 
424 
346 
110 
112 
210 
1,218 
208 
128 
278 
40 

3,926 



MEXICO. 



311 



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312 , MEXICO. 

As will be seen by reference to the above tables the total of colonists 
was then 8,017, nearly one-half of whom are aliens. In 1890 there 
were only 18 colonies, with 6,521 inhabitants. Five of these colonies 
are no longer in existence, and in very rare instances have the remain- 
ing settlements increased in colonists. 

The colonies of Escuintla and Patria have been recently founded, 
the former being composed entirely of Japanese. 

A concession was recently granted for the colonizing by Choctaw 
Indians of the district of Zitacuaro in Michoacan, and it is expected 
that 50 families will soon settle there. The International Land and 
Colonization Company has a government concession to colonize lands 
in the above section of the country. 

The Carlos Pacheco colony is situated about 100 miles south of San 
Diego, Cal. , and maintains rail, telegraphic, and telephonic communi- 
cation with it. 

The Sericicultora colony of 112 Mexicans in the State of Mexico is 
devoted exclusively to the cultivation of silkworms. 

One of the Mexican colonization agents will settle between 115 and 
and 120 Mexican families from Texas comprising 500 persons, or there- 
abouts, in the State of Tamaulipas, about 12 miles from Victoria. 
These families will be recruited from Luling, Corpus Christi; Prairie 
Lea, Taylor, Gonzales, etc. The colony was to be established in Jan- 
uary, 1898, and each family to receive 100 acres each. 

The Department of Promotion, on October 18 and 20, 1897, respec- 
tively, entered into two more contracts for the establishment of colonies 
in Simojovel, Chiapas, and the District of Bravos, Chihuahua. The 
former locality is to be settled by 10 families from the Basque provinces 
in Spain and 35 Mexican families, to devote themselves to agriculture. 
The latter colony will comprise 75 per cent of European and 25 per 
cent of Mexican families. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

EDUCATION— REliIGION— PROTESTANT MISSIONS. 

Education in Mexico has been for many years the subject of serious 
consideration on the part of the Government, on account of the diifi- 
culty experienced in combating the conservative ideas prevailing in 
the Republic. The main obstacles have, however, been overcome, and 
the country to-day enjoys the benefit of a liberal system of education, 
which is administered under three branches — gratuitous, lay, and 
obligatory. Laws have been enacted, normal schools for both sexes 
have been established, and in order to still further extend the benefits 
to be derived from a uniform educational system throughout the 
whole country, the Government convoked the various States for a 
National Congress of Education. The labors of this congress resulted 
in the grading of educational facilities from primary or children's 
schools to higher grades and special institutions of learning; the prep- 
aration of general plans of study for all grades; the division of the 
subjects taught into annual courses; also provided for the unrestricted 
selection of the latest and most improved methods of instruction suit- 
able to each grade; and, in short, for the examination and choice of 
whatever systems, either technical or administrative, which might be 
deemed suitable to the ends for which the congress was convened. 

The Executive at that time laid before Congress the plan of a reform 
of the law of March 21, 1891, placing elemental tuition under the care 
of municipalities and obliging them to establish at least one school for 
each 4,000 inhabitants. This law obtained the approval of Congress, 
and by virtue thereof the municipal schools of the Federal District 
and of the Territories came under Federal jurisdiction. The superior 
board of primary education (Direccion Superior de Instruccion Pri- 
maria) was also created for the reorganization, superintendence, and 
management of said institutions. 

The law making education compulsory was promulgated March 23, 
1888, but its enforcement was not decreed at that time, and the first 
Congress of Public Education was convened for the purpose of adopt- 
ing such measures as should tend to establish an efficient and uniform 
system of education. This congress met on December 1, 1889, and 
closed its sessions on March 31, 1890, after having passed on and 
approved 124 questions, the principal being the establishment of a 
national system of popular education based on the uniformity of oblig- 
atory, gratuitous, and laical primary education, children from 6 to 12 

313 



314 MEXICO. 

years of age to be given an elementary primary education embracing 
four courses or scholastic j^ears. The general programme for elemental 
primary obligatory education embraces practical morals, civic or laical 
instruction, the national language (including writing and reading), 
object lessons, arithmetic, the principles of physical and natural sci- 
ences, geography, history of the country, practical notions of geometr}'^, 
drawing, singing, gymnastics, and for girls, sewing, etc. Resolu- 
tions were passed relating to rural schools, itinerant teachers, kinder- 
gartens, etc., and it was declared indispensable that education for 
adults should be provided for in cases where persons had been unable 
to receive instruction during childhood. Education was also declared 
compulsory in soldiers' barracks, jails, penitentiaries, and institutions 
of correction. Superior primary education was declared compulsory 
for students desiring to enter preparatory and professional schools 
which did not exact a secondary education, the period required for 
this branch being two years. Several other measures of similar import 
were also passed. 

A second congress was convened on December 1, 1890, which solved 
certain problems on compulsory elemental education, fixed the methods 
to be followed in the schools of superior primary education, and settled 
matters pertaining to normal schools, preparatory education, and spe- 
cial schools. As the result of this congress, the law of March 21, 1891, 
was enacted, regulating compulsory education in the Federal District 
and the Territories of Tepic and Lower California, which law became 
effective on January 17, 1892. 

The primary schools previously supported by the Government were 
those which were under the care of the Compania Lancasteriana, which, 
since 1822, had been working earnestly and unceasingly for gratuitous 
public education. The methods employed, though formerly excellent, 
had become obsolete, and by the act of March 29, 1890, the Govern- 
ment resolved to bring these schools directly under the protection and 
jurisdiction of the nation. They were consequently placed under the 
supervision of the Department of Justice and Public Education, the 
Treasury being ordered to take charge of all buildings and moneys 
used in the maintenance of the institutions, as they were in reality 
the property of the Republic. 

On May 19, 1896, the law of public education was promulgated, its 
salient points being as follows: 

Ofllcial primary elemental education in the Federal District and 
Federal Territories was placed under the exclusive control of the 
Executive; primary superior education was organized as an interme- 
diate educational system between elementary and preparatory instruc- 
tion. A general board of primary education was created, charged to 
develop and maintain the same under a scientific and administrative 
plan. Preparatory education was decreed to be uniform for all pro- 



MEXICO. 



315 



fessions, its extent being limited to the study of such matters as are 
necessary to the development of the physical and intellectual faculties 
and the morals of youth, it being further directed that professional 
education be reorganized, limiting it to technical matters which per- 
tain to the prof ession or professions to which each paiticular school is 
devoted. 

By virtue of this law public education ceased to be in charge of the 
Board of Aldermen (ayuntamientos) of the above-mentioned sections. 
At the time of its promulgation the municipality of Mexico contained 
113 schools supported by the Board of Aldermen, 14,246 students 
being entered on the rolls, with an average attendance of 9,798. 

Each State defrays the expenses of public education, either with 
funds specially appropriated for that purpose or with the municipal 
funds. 

According to statistical data, in 1876 there were throughout the 
country 8,165 primary schools, with 368,754 students of both sexes. 
In 1895 Government schools reached the number of 4,056, of which 
2,189 were for males, 1,119 for females, and 748 for both sexes; 
municipal schools numbered 3,394 — for males, 1,754; females, 932; 
both sexes, 708. These comprised 7,380 primary, 32 secondary, 
and 35 professional schools, the number of students enrolled being 
310,496 males and 181,484 females (a total of 491,980), and the mean 
attendance 338,066. The total cost to the Government and the 
municipalities for the maintenance of these institutions was 13,973,738. 
In the same year private schools to the number of 1,816 were being 
conducted, 659 for males, 460 for females, and the remainder under a 
coeducational system. In addition, 276 were supported by the clergy 
and 146 by associations, the total number of students enrolled being 
68,879, of which 40,135 were males and 38,744 females. The total 
number of private schools was accordingly 2,238, of which 2,193 
were devoted to primary education, 34 to secondary instruction, and 
11 to professions. 

The statistics for 1897, which are the latest available, give the fol- 
lowing figures: 



Schools. 


1896. 


1897. a 


Males. 


Females. 


Mixed. Total. 


Males. 


Females. 


Mixed. 


Total. 


Federal and State Governments. 
Municipal 


3,322 

1,787 

671 

160 

87 


1,625 

777 
626 
102 

74 


905 5, 862 

654 3,218 

756 1,953 

41 303 

25 186 


3,423 

1,056 

656 

145 

59 


1,564 
609 
472 
94 
49 


1,164 

388 

669 

46 

14 


6,141 
1,963 


Private institutions 


1,797 
285 
122 


Supported by the clergy 

Supported by associations 



a This table has been compiled from data published in the Anuario Estadlstico for 1896 and 1897. 
The state of Veracruz and the Territory of Tepic are not represented in 1897, nor are all the schools 
of the Federal District included. 

In 1896 the number of students enrolled amounted to 666,301 for 
the Federal, State, and municipal schools, there being 439,824 males 



316 MEXICO. 

and 226,477 females; while in 1897 the number was 584,171, of which 
392,320 were males and 191,841 females. Using- the figures given in 
1896 for Veracruz and the Federal District as identical for 1897, it 
may be safely assumed that on December 31, 1897, the public schools 
in Mexico (Federal, State, and municipal) stood as follows: 

Number of schools 9, 065 

Students enrolled 666, 787 

Average monthly attendance - 458, 035 

Private institutions 2, 361 

Number of students 92, 387 

Average attendance 75, 857 

The total expenditures for the support of Federal, State, and muni- 
cipal schools amounted in 1897 to $6,291,000. 

In addition to the normal and primary schools, the Government also 
supports the following institutions: School of jurisprudence, school 
of medicine, school of agriculture and veterinary instruction, school of 
engineers, school of fine arts, school of arts and trades for men, and a 
similar institution for women, school of commerce and administration, 
National conservatory of music, preparatory school, schools for the 
blind, for deaf-mutes, reform schools, etc., also 9 museums, and 17 
libraries containing from 400 to 159,000 volumes. 

Beside the Government institutions above mentioned, there are 
throughout the country 26 museums, 83 libraries, 32 scientific and 
literary associations, and 457 periodical publications, the latter being- 
distributed as follows: City of Mexico, 128; State of Aguascalientes, 
8; Campeche, 4; Coahuila, 13; Colima, 6; Chiapas, 4; Chihuahua, 19; 
Durango, 8; Guanajuato, 20; Guerrero, 3; Hidalgo, 3; Jalisco, 39; 
Mexico, 11; Michoacan, 13; Morelos, 1; Nuevo Leon, 14; Oaxaca, 8; 
Puebla, 15: Queretaro, 1; San Luis Potosi, 9; Sinaloa, 7; Sonora, 
14; Tabasco, 8; Tamaulipas, 21; Tlaxcala, 1; Veracruz, 35; Yucatan, 
25; Zacatecas, 9; Territory of Lower California, 4, and Tepic, 6. Of 
these, 426 are printed in Spanish, 15 in English, 2 in French, 1 in 
German, 12 in both English and Spanish, and 1 in several languages. 
There are 45 dailies, 32 semiweeklies. 6 triweeklies, 205 weeklies, 61 
issued fortnightly, 70 monthlies, 2 bimonthlies, 1 trimonthly, 10 quar- 
terlies, 1 annual, and 19 not reported. 

The prevailing religion in Mexico is the Roman Catholic, the church 
being governed by a number of archbishops and bishops. The founda- 
tion of the church in the country may be said to date back to 
1517, in which year Yucatan was discovered by Don Francisco 
Hernandez de Cordova, a rich Cuban merchant. Cordova, with 110 
Spaniards, reached Cape Catoche during April of 1517, and soon 
gave battle to the inhabitants, killing 15 and capturing 2. The 
invaders were accompanied by a priest named Alonzo Gonzales, a 
native of Santo Domingo, who, during the engagement, carried from 
a heathen temple the idols therein preserved and, the fight ended, 
made the temple a Christian church, dedicating it under the invocation 



MEXICO. 317 

of Nue8tra Senora de los Remedios (Our Lady of Succor), the patron 
saint of the Spaniards. The two captives, named Melchor and Julian, 
were purged of their sins, baptized, and made Christians, becoming 
the first converts of the New World. 

Pope Leo X, by bull of January 27, 1518, created the bishopric of 
Yucatan, appointing to the see the Dominican Fray Julian Garces, at 
the time bishop of Cuba, but he never entered his diocese, owing to 
the Spanish conquest extending at the time into Mexico, and operations 
in Yucatan being abandoned. On October 13, 1525, Pope Clement 
VII appointed Garces to the newly created see of Puebla, under the 
official title of Bishop of Puebla, Yucatan, Chiapas, and Oaxaca. 

The first bishop of Mexico, with the title of bishop-elect and pro- 
tector of the Indians, was Fray Juan de Zumarraga. This functionary 
destroyed manj;^ of the ancient picture writings of the Aztecs. He 
arrived in Veracruz in December, 1528, and was made bishop of Mexico, 
suffragan to the archbishop of Seville, by bull of September 2, 1530. 
In 1515 the Mexican bishopric was made independent, and by bull of 
January 31, 1515, it was erected into an archbishopric, with bishop 
Zumarraga as archbishop. In the year 1571 the archbishop of Mexico 
was made primate of New Spain, and on March 16, 1863, Pius IX 
divided the Mexican church into three archdioceses. These were the 
eastern, or that of Mexico; the central, or that of Michoacan; and the 
western, or that of Guadalajara. The various bishoprics of Mexico 
are suffragan to these archbishoprics. 

The Holy Ofiice of the Inquisition founded its first tribunal in the 
City of Mexico in the year 1571, with Don Pedro Moya de Contreras 
as Inquisitor-general of New Spain, Guatemala, and the Philippine 
Islands. The first burning place in the City of Mexico was situated 
near the Church of San Diego, upon land now included in the Ala- 
meda. The first auto-da-fe was celebrated in 1574, when, as stated 
by a chronicler of the day, "twenty-one pestilent Lutherans" were 
incinerated for the cause of religion. 

On May 31, 1820, the inquisition was suppressed forever in Mexico. 
The last auto-da-fe was celebrated on November 26, 1815, the accused 
being the patriot Morelos, who, having been turned over to the secu- 
lar authorities, was shot on December 22, 1815. The charge against 
Morelos was that he was "an unconfessed heretic, an abettor of heresy, 
and a disturber of ecclesiastical hierarchy; profaner of the holy 
sacraments; a traitor to God, to the King, and to the Pope." 

The finest edifices in the Republic were erected by the Roman Catho- 
lics, and it is estimated that up to 1859 one-third of the real and per- 
sonal property was owned by the church. The cathedrals and churches, 
convents and monasteries were solidly, massively built, and the inte- 
riors of the cathedrals and churches were magnificently decorated, 
gold and silver being lavishly employed in embellishing them. 

The three orders of the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits were 



318 



MEXICO. 



the most prominent in firmly fixing the power of Spain in Mexico and 
fostering learning in the land, but the absorption of so considerable a 
portion of the wealth of the colony by the church, and the blocking of 
the channels of trade consequent on the locking up of capital, brought 
about the suppression of religious orders in the Republic. The J esuits 
were finally expelled from the country in 1856, and all the remaining 
orders had been abolished on Mexican territory by December 27, 1860, 
through the efforts of the Liberal forces, headed by Juarez. The 
laws of reform, incorporated into the Federal Constitution Decem- 
ber 14, 1874, suppressed the last remaining female religious establish- 
ments — the Sisters of Charity. ' ' This law left Mexico without a monk 
or a nun, and so it remains to this day." 

The number of vicarages and parishes, Roman Catholic churches 
and chapels in Mexico is given in the following table: 



Dioceses. 



Seat. 



Vicarages 
and par- 
ishes. 



Churches 

and 
chapels. 



Total. 



Archbishopric of Mexico 

Bishopric of Puebla 

Bishopric of Oaxaca 

Bishopric of Chiapas 

Bishopric of Yucatto 

Bishopric of Tabasco 

Bishopric of Tulancingo 

Bishopric of Veracruz 

Bishopric of Chilapa 

Bishopric of Tamaulipas 

Archbishopri c of MicnoacAn 

Bishopric of San Luis Potosl 

Bishopric of Quer6taro 

Bishopric of Leon 

Bishopric of Zamora 

Archbishopric of Guadalajara 

Bishopric of Durango 

Bishopric of Linares 

Bishopric of Sonora 

Bishopric of Zacatecas 

Vicarage Apostolic of Lower California. 



Mexico 

Puebla 

Oaxaca 

San Cristobal 

M^rida 

San Juan Bautista. 

Tulancingo 

Jalapa 

Chilapa 

Ciudad Victoria . . . 

Morelia 

San Luis 

Quer6taro 

Leon 

Zamora 

Guadalajara 

Durango 

Monterey 

Culiac&n 

Zacatecas 



203 
187 
134 
40 
84 
12 
70 
64 
76 
39 
58 
53 
29 
23 
36 
106 
45 
36 
55 
20 



1, 654 
2,513 
1,000 
500 
231 
100 
400 
100 
379 
41 
300 
171 
107 
100 
100 
376 
250 
136 
200 
100 
3 



1,857 
2,700 
1,134 
640 
318 
112 
470 
164 
464 
80 
368 
204 
136 
123 
136 
482 
295 
171 
255 
120 
3 



Total. 



1,349 



8,763 



10, 112 



Independence of thought in religion may be said to have had its 
beginning in Mexico as far back as the year 1770, when Bishop Fabian, 
of Puebla, under the auspices of Archbishop (afterwards Cardinal) 
Lorenzana, published his "Missa Gothica seu Mozarabica," which was 
a liturgy used in Spain by the Gothic Christians prior to the adoption 
of the Roman liturgy. Liberal ideas grew very slowly, but received 
considerable impulse when, in 1824, Mexico gained her independence 
from the mother country, Juarez and the "laws of reform" further 
invigorated these ideas, which grew more and more until about 1860, 
when the first Protestant missionarj'^. Miss Matilde Rankin, commenced 
her labors in the Mexican field, which resulted in a short time in the 
formation of fourteen Protestant congregations. 

The first movement toward the formation of a Christian church dis- 
tinct from the Roman Catholic which came to a successful issue was 
begun in the country in 1868, when aid was asked of Protestants in the 



MEXICO. 319 

United States. The aid being afforded, there was organized in 1869 
in the City of Mexico what was called ' ' The Church of Jesus in Mexico," 
which, however, was not the result of missionary work so niuch as "a 
spontaneous movement originating among members of the Roman 
Catholic Church " in the country who desired "a greater liberty of 
conscience, a purer worship, and a better church organization." 

The Rev. Henry C. Riley, a clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church in the United States, went to Mexico, in 1869, and entered 
heartily into the work of "The Church of Jesus." In the same year 
the great church of San Francisco, as well as the chapel of Balvanera, 
were purchased by the Protestants, and services were conducted 
therein in Spanish and English. 

These buildings, formerly Roman Catholic churches, were purchased 
at an expense of $50,000, and in addition to this, during the five years 
that the society continued in charge of the work, more than $83,000 
were expended in the support of missionaries. More than 3,000 per- 
sons connected themselves with the movement, and in 1873 the society 
deemed it expedient to transfer the work to the board of missions of the 
Protestant Episcopal Church. Subsequent to this the Rev. Dr. Riley 
was consecrated bishop of the valley of Mexico; but in April, 1884, 
after Bishop Riley's resignation, the American bishops recognized the 
Ctier-po JEdesidsticOj composed of the clergy and readers, as the ecclesi- 
astical authority of the Mexican Church. 

The Church of San Francisco is a historic building; it was dedicated 
December 8, 1716, but the original monastery and church, whose site 
this edifice occupied, was built about 1607 on lands which had for- 
merly been the garden and wild-beast house of the kings of Tenoch- 
titlan. Cortes provided funds for the building of the first church, 
and material was secured in the hewn stone from the steps of the great 
Teocalli (the Aztec temple). In this church Cortes heard masses, and 
for a time his bones found a resting place. Here the Spanish viceroys, 
through the centuries, took part in the great festivals of the church. 
The Te Demn in celebration of Mexican independence was first echoed 
by its walls. Here the liberator, Agustin de Yturbide, worshiped, 
and here his funeral services were held when he died; and here, to-day, 
Protestant services are held. 

Three churches now stand on portions of the land covered by what 
were known formerly as the seven churches of San Francisco. They 
are the Church of Jesus; Christ Church, where the services of the 
Church of England are held, and the Methodist Episcopal Church of 
the Trinity. 

In 1891 the Mexican Church elected the presiding bishop of the 
American Church as the provisional bishop of the former, and took as 
its name "The Mexican Episcopal Church of Jesus." The general 
convention has commended the church work in Mexico, and since then 



320 MEXICO. 

the Mexican Church has reorganized itself, substituting for the Cuerpo 
Eclesidstico a synod composed of the clergy and lay representatives 
from' the congregations. It has adopted a body of canons for its gov- 
ernment and has also offices for the administration of baptism, con- 
firmation, and communion, for marriage and burial, for daily morning 
and evening prayer, etc. Two men have been ordained to the priest- 
hood and seven to the deaconate. 

The Mexican Episcopal Church is no longer an American mission, 
although the contributions of American church people are supporting 
the work. 

The church has stations in four States and the Federal District, hav- 
ing a membership of 1,224 and 568 communicants. There are also 348 
school pupils. The clergy and workers consist of 8 presbyters, 5 
deacons, 6 readers, 6 candidates for orders, 13 teachers, 24 congrega- 
tions, the Dean Gray school for boys, and the Hooker orphanage. 

The provisional bishop is Rt. Rev. John Williams, D. D., LL. D., 
bishop of Connecticut. The resident representative in Mexico is the 
Rev. Henry Forrester, who is stationed in the City of Mexico. 

The Presbyterian Church also has a mission in Mexico, which was 
begun in 1874, and has 4 stations, 11 churches, 68 preaching places, 
8 missionaries, 3 native preachers, 18 other native helpers, 39 additions 
to the church, 479 communicants, 2 theological students, 25 pupils in 
boarding schools, 356 pupils in day schools, and 15 Sabbath schools, 
with 333 pupils. 

The Methodist Episcopal Church South laid its foundation in the 
City of Mexico in 1873. There are now three mission conferences in 
Mexico, representing the fruits of unceasing toil and heroic devotion 
for twenty-four years. They are the Central (organized in 1886), the 
Northwest (organized in 1890), and the Mexican Border (organized in 
1885). Their joint statistics give missionaries, 18; native traveling 
preachers, 65; members, 6,926; Sunday schools, 125; scholars, 3,363; 
Epworth leagues, 26; members, 802; organized churches, 114; board- 
ing schools, 2; pupils, 209; day schools, 13; pupils, 332. Total value 
of mission property, $78,035. Under the Woman's Foreign Mission- 
ary Society there are in the Republic of Mexico 6 boarding schools in 
successful operation, including 1 in Laredo, on the border. There 
are 6 day schools, 4 Bible women, and a large force of native helpers, 
besides the 16 missionaries and 30 teachers. 

This church claims that a Mexican, Sostenes Juarez, was the first 
man who held Protestant services in Mexico. That in 1865 a band of 
seven met in a room on the Calle San Jose Real, in the City of Mexico, 
and organized the first Protestant church in Mexico. It was called 
The Society of Christian Friends. 

Data kindly furnished by the Missionary Society of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church show a very flourishing condition of affairs. This 



MEXICO. 321 

organization has in Mexico 40 churches, 29 parsonages, 1 theological 
school, 5 high schools, and 48 day schools. It employs 24 missionaries, 
90 native preachers, and 65 teachers in its various schools. There are 
3,938 church members, 59 Sunday schools with 2,187 scholars, while 
in the above other schools there are 3,352 students. 

The value of the church property, parsonage, and other buildings 
is about $214,925. 

The society also maintains a publishing house, from which it issues 
a weekly paper called El Ahogado Cristicmo. During 1896 the house 
published Sunday school lesson papers, hymnals, tracts, etc., to the 
number of 9,871,400 pages. 

Two distinct missionary organizations of the Baptists of the United 
States are prosecuting missionary work in Mexico independently of 
each other, although the best of relations exist between them. These 
are the American Baptist Home Missionary Society and the Foreign 
Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention. 

The latest official report of the former shows that the society has in 
Mexico 13 churches and 2 schools under its control, with 17 mission- 
aries, 12 of whom are natives. There are about 800 church members, 
5 teachers, with an enrollment of about 100 in the schools, 4 church 
edifices, and 1 parsonage, which, with the grounds, are valued at about 
155,000, gold. 

The society also has a printing establishment in the City of Mexico, 
from which is issued La Luz^ a semimonthly paper, besides many other 
publications. 

The American Friends Society has missions at Matamoros, City of 
Mexico, and other places. 

The ^''Anuario Estadistico'''' for 1897 gives to the country 1 Evan- 
gelist, 1 Reformed Church, 4 Protestant, and 45 Catholic publications. 

When the Protestant missionaries first began their labors in the 
Mexican field they suffered trials and tribulations innumerable, and 
some suffered death for their faith; but of late years the Federal 
Government, as well as the State authorities, see to it that the consti- 
tutional right of free conscience is enjoyed by all alike, and, in conse- 
quence, Protestanism is spreading and gaining proselytes. 
65lA 21 



1895 154 

1896 150 

1897 203 



CHAPTER XVII. 

PATENT AND TRADE-MARK LAWS. 

The lirst patent law of Mexico was framed and issued in 1832, but 
it was not until 1886 that any remarkable activity was noted in this 
branch of development, as in the years intervening between 1832 and 
1863 not a smg-le patent was granted. From 1854 to 1875 the entire 
number issued was only 41; from 18T6 to 1885 there were 360; in 1886 
102, and from that time until 1889 the patent grants numbered 406. 

The patent law now in force was passed on June 7, 1890, and amended 
June 6, 1896. The number of patents issued under its provisions 
from date of promulgation to December 31, 1897, according to Mexi- 
can official figures, was as follows: 

1890 63 

1891 153 

1892 168 

1893 122 

1894 125 Total 1, 138 

The patent law of the Republic is as follows: 

Article 1. Any Mexican or foreigner who is the inventor or 
improver of any industry or art or of objects destined therefor has the 
right, by virtue of article 28 of the Constitution, to the exclusive use 
thereof during a certain number of years, under the rules and regula- 
tions prescribed in this law. 

In order to acquire this right a patent of invention or improvement 
must be obtained. 

Art. 2. Every discovery, invention, or improvement that may have 
for its object a new industrial product, a new manner of production, 
or the new application of means already known for the obtainment of 
a result or of an industrial product is patentable. Chemical or phar- 
maceutical products may likewise be patented. 

Art. 3. An invention or improvement shall not be considered new 
when in this country or abroad, and prior to the application for the 
patent, it may have received a sufficient publicity to be put into 
practice. Excepting, however, the case when the publicity may have 
been made by a foreign authority empowered to issue patents, and 
when the invention or improvement may have been presented in 
expositions held within the territory of the Republic or abroad. 

Art. 4. The following can not be patented: 

I. The inventions or improvements whose working shall be contrary 
to the laws forbidding them or regarding public security. 
322 



MEXICO. 323 

II. Scientific principles or discoveries while they are merely specu- 
lative or be not put into practice by means of a machine, apparatus, 
instruments, mechanical or chemical processes of a practical industrial 
character. 

Art. 5. The granting of a patent does not guarantee the novelty nor 
the usefulness of the object to which it relates, nor does it solve ques- 
tions that may arise therefrom. Consequently, it must be granted 
without previous examination as to the novelty or utility of the inven- 
tion or improvement, or of the sufficiency or insufficiency of the 
descriptions that may accompany the petition. 

Art. 6. The granting of a patent can only be made with reference 
to one object or industrial process. When two or more can be com- 
bined among themselves to produce the same industrial result applica- 
tion must be made for the number of patents that may be necessary 
therefor. 

Art 7. The rights granted by virtue of the patents issued in the 
Republic for objects or processes that may have been or may hereafter 
be protected by foreign patents are independent of the rights that the 
latter may convey and of the effects or results incident thereto. 

Art. 8. The effects of a patent are: 

I. To deprive every person, without permission from the owner of 
the patent, of the right to produce, through industrial means, the 
object of the invention, or to place it on the market and from sell- 
ing it. 

II. With reference to a process, machine, or any other manner of 
working an instrument or other means of operation, the effect of the 
patent is to deprive others of the right to apply the process or to use 
the object of the invention without the permission of the owner of the 
patent. 

Art. 9. The patent does not produce any effect whatever as regards 
a third party that was already secretly working or had made the prep- 
arations necessary for working within the Republic the invention or 
process before the presentation of the patent. 

Art. 10. The effects of the patent do not comprise the objects or 
products that may cross the territory of the Republic in transit or may 
remain within its territorial waters. 

Art. 11. The right of applying for a patent for objects or processes 
that may be protected by foreign patents can only be granted to 
inventors or improvers or to their legitimate representatives. 

Art. 12. Inventors shall have the period of one year from the date 
of the patent within which they shall have exclusive right to apply for 
patents for improvements. 

Art. 13. Patents may be granted for 20 years from the date of the 
issue thereof; nevertheless, when the patents shall be sought for objects 
or processes already protected by foreign patents the life thereof shall 



324 MEXICO. 

not exceed the unexpired portion of the existence of the first patent 
issued to the applicant. 

Art. 14. The term of a patent ma}^ be extended for 5 years at the 
discretion of the Executive. The extension of the term of a patent 
of invention involves the extension of the term of the supplementary 
patents of improvement relative thereto. 

Art. 15. On payment of a fair indemnity the Executive may appro- 
priate a patent on the ground of public policy or by reason of the 
patented article being of such a nature that its free use is capable of 
proving an important source of public wealth. However, this can 
only be done under one of the following circumstances: 

I. When the patentee refuses to allow his patent to be worked. 

II. When the machine, apparatus, instrument, or process is capable 
of being produced or used in the country. 

The regulations will determine the formalities and procedure to be 
observed in the appropriation of patents for the public good. 

Art. 16. In order to obtain the protection of this law, application 
must be made in due form to the Department of Promotion in which 
the authority to grant patents is vested. 

Art. 17. The first applicant for a patent shall have in his favor the 
presumption of being the first inventor, and moreover enjoys the right 
of possession. 

Art. 18. Inventors, whether citizens or foreigners, who are unable 
to apply personally to the Department of Promotion, may appoint 
attorne3^s in fact to act for them, both in obtaining the patent and in 
lawsuits and other matters relative thereto. 

Citizens may appoint an attorney in fact by a common letter of 
authorization, but foreigners must grant a regular power of attorney 
duly recorded. 

The effects of the powers of attorney cease with the issue of the pat- 
ent, unless it be otherwise stated in the power. 

Art. 19. Applications for the granting of letters patent shall be 
published in the official journal of the Federal Government during a 
period of two months, at intervals of ten days. 

Art. 20. During the period of time mentioned in the foregoing arti- 
cle interference proceedings may be instituted by 'any one with a view 
to prevent the granting of the patent solicited. 

After the said period of time has elapsed no proceedings of inter- 
ference will be allowed. 

Art. 21. Interference proceedings can only be instituted on the 
following grounds: 

I. That the alleged invention or improvement is not properly patent- 
able under the provisions of this law. 

II. That such alleged invention or improvement has been taken 
from descriptions, drawing, models, devices, apparatuses, or methods 



MEXICO. 32^ 

invented by another, or from processes already reduced to practice by 
another, or, in general, on the ground that the applicant is not the 
original inventor or his legitimate assignee. 

Art. 22. If two or more persons claim the same invention the first 
inventor shall be entitled to the patent, but if priority of invention 
can not be determined the patent shall be granted to the first applicant. 

Art. 23. If interference proceedings be instituted, as determined 
by articles 20 and 21, the Department of Promotion shall summon the 
parties and endeavor to reconcile their conflicting claims. But if this 
is unsuccessful the Department shall suspend all further executive 
proceedings and shall transmit all the evidence in the case to the 
proper judicial authority. The party instituting interference pro- 
ceedings shall be allowed two months to make good his action in court, 
but if he fail to do so within this time his claim shall be disallowed. 

Art. 24. All judgments of the judicial authority in the premises 
shall be transmitted to the Department of Promotion that they may be 
duly enforced. 

Art. 25. The decrees of the Department of Promotion granting a 
patent can only be canceled by a judicial sentence, and only on the 
ground of the nullity of the patent. 

Art. 26. At the expiration of the two months referred to in article 
19, and after the Government tax ^ has been paid into the treasury of 
the nation, the letters patent shall be issued with reference to the 
invention or improvement sought, provided always that letters patent 
covering the same invention have not previously been granted by the 
Department of Promotion. 

Art. 27. Letters patent issued in the name of the nation shall have 
subscribed thereto the signature of the President of the Republic, be 
countersigned by the Secretary of Promotion, and bear, besides, the 
great seal; they must further contain in clear language a description 
of the discovery or improvement patented. 

The letters patent, with one of the copies of the drawings, samples, 
models, and other matters under seal, together with the documents 
presented with the application duly certified by the subsecretary, shall 
constitute the title of the person who may obtain the patent. 

Art. 28. Letters patent shall be recorded in a special register 
wherein the appropriate entries relative thereto shall be made. 

Art. 29. All letters patent that may be issued shall be published in 
the official journal; and, furthermore, every year a special book shall 
be published which must contain a clear and exact description of the 
inventions or improvements, as also copies of the drawings. 

Art. 30. All inventions protected by letters patent shall bear a 
mark stating that fact and the number and date of the letters patent. 

' By executive decree for the years 1897-98 and 1898-99, the Federal tax on patents 
is $10 in Mexican money, payable to the Federal Treasury. 



326 MEXICO. 

Letters patent require the pa3''ment of a fee amounting to from 
to ^150, payable in Mexican dollars or in bonds of the national con- 
solidated debt. 

Art. 32. In case of the extension referred to in article 14, a new 
fee shall be paid in conformity with the foregoing article. 

Art. 33. The owner of a patent of invention or improvement must 
prove before the Department of Promotion at the end of each five 
years of the life of a patent, in order to preserve it for another like 
period; that he has made to the General Treasury of the Federation, 
at the end of the first five years, a payment of fifty pesos; at the end 
of ten years a payment of seventy -five pesos^ and at the expiration of 
fifteen j^'ears a payment of one hundred pesos. All these payments 
must be made in Mexican pesos. 

The term within which these payments must be proven will be two 
months next succeeding the expiration of the five-year period, and it 
is not extendible. 

Art. 34. The Department of Promotion shall make an entry in the 
registry of letters patent of the fact that the requirements of the fore- 
going articles have been complied with. 

Art. 35. Letters patent are null and void — 

I. Whenever they may have been issued in contravention of the pro- 
visions of articles 2, 3, and 4. Nevertheless, when letters patent shall 
have been obtained, in conformity with a petition wherein the appli- 
cant has presented and obtained more than what he is entitled to as the 
first discoverer or inventor, his letters patent shall be valid in so far 
as they conform to whatever he may be entitled to, provided they do 
not infringe the provisions of the following subdivision and that no 
fraud shall have been committed upon making the petition. In this 
case the letters patent shall be limited only to what they should cover, 
the proceedings incident thereto to be in conformity with the pro- 
visions of article 39. 

II. Whenever the object for which the patent has been sought is 
different from that which is granted by virtue of the letters patent. 

m. Whenever it is proved that the main object sought in the peti- 
tion for the letters patent is comprised within one of the cases 
referred to in Subdivision II of article 21. 

The proceedings to invalidate letters patent have to be commenced 
within the term of one year after the date when the patent shall be 
put in operation in the Republic. 

Art. 36. An action for the purpose of declaring invalid letters 
patent before the courts may be instituted in the name or on behalf 
of the district attorney. 

Whoever may work or have in operation the same industry shall 
have the right to interpose an exception and take part in the pro- 
ceedings of interference. 



MEXICO. 



327 



Art. 37. Letters patent shall lapse — 

I. Whenever the term for which they were granted shall have ter- 
minated and they may not have been extended. 

II. When they shall be given up in part or in their entirety. 

III. Through failure to comply with the provisions of article 33.^ 
Art. 38. TheDepartmentof Promotion shall declare the invalidity of 

the patent in the first two cases referred to in the foregoing article; in 
the third case it can only be done by the court at the instance and 
request of the district attorney or of the party in interest by institut- 
ing interference proceedings to that end. 

Art. 39. The decrees of nullity and lapse of letters patent shall be 
published in the official journal of the Federal Government and entered 
in the records of the Department of Promotion. 

Art. 40. The decrees of nullity and lapse of letters patent have the 
effect of affording the public in general the use of inventions or improve- 
ments. 

In case of relinquishment of letters patent, should only a portion of 
the same be relinquished the public has merely the right to use the 
portion thus abandoned, the letters patent remaining valid as to the 
rest thereof. The relinquishment shall be made in writing and be 
entered in the record. 

Art. 4:1. The ownership of letters patent may be assigned by any of 
the means established by law with regard to private property, but no 
act of assignment or any other that implies the modification of the 
right of property shall be prejudicial to the rights of third parties, if 
the same shall not be recorded in the office of the Department of 
Promotion. 

Art. 42. Everything relating to the fraudulent infringement of 
letters patent shall be subject to the provisions of the penal code of 
the Federal District and of the codes of procedure. 

Art. 43. The proceedings relating to letters patent at present pend- 
ing shall be continued and decided in conformity with the provisions 
of this law in all things unacted on. 

Art. 44. All those at present enjoying privileges by virtue of let- 
ters patent now in full force may avail themselves of the provisions of 
this law upon paying beforehand the fees herein set forth. 

Art. 45. The Executive of the Union may issue rules of practice 
appropriate to this law, and may establish, if he deems it proper, a 
patent office in connection with the Department of Promotion. 

^ The Mexican Congress, on June 2, 1896, by legal enactment provided that parties 
whose patents had lapsed through failure to comply with the provisions of article 33, 
as originally framed in the law of June 7, 1890, might take advantage of the terms of 
the amendment to escape the penalty of lapse, provided they proved the payment 
of the sums therein mentioned within the three months next succeeding its promul- 
gation, and provided further that there is no prejudice to the rights which third 
parties might have acquired since the application of the penalty of lapse. 



328 MEXICO. 

Art. 46. The law of Ma}^ T, 1832, and every part thereof, and all 
other provisions of law adopted relative to this subject, are hereb}'^ 
repealed. 

The Mexican law relating to trade-marks was promulgated by the 
President on the 28th of November, 1889, and went into effect on the 
1st of January, 1890. 

Following- is a translation thereof, with amendments promulgated 
December 17, 1897: 

Article 1. A mark specially distinguishing in trade any product 
of industry shall be considered a trade-mark. 

Art. 2. The protection conceded by this law to trade-marks does 
not cover any article not manufactured or sold in the country. 

Art. 3. No form, color, motto, or title which does not in itself con- 
stitute a specially distinguishing mark in trade of a product is regis- 
trable as a trade-mark. In no case shall such mark be contra honos 
mores. 

Art. 4. Any proprietor of a trade-mark, whether a citizen or a 
foreigner residing in the country or abroad, may acquire the exclusive 
right to the use of the same in the Republic, subject to the provisions 
of this law. 

Citizens and foreigners residing abroad having an industrial or 
mercantile establishment for the sale of their products in this countr}^ 
may register ownership of trade-marks, subject, however, in the case 
of foreigners, to treaty provisions. 

Art. 5. In order to acquire exclusive ownership of a trade-mark 
the party in interest must make application in person or by a repre- 
sentative to the Department of Promotion, declaring that he reserves 
his rights, accompanied by the following documents: 

I. A power of attorney in case the part}^ in interest does not appear 
in person. 

II. Two copies of the trade-mark or an engraved or photographic 
reproduction thereof. 

III. In case the trade-mark on an article is in intaglio or in relief, 
or has some other peculiarity, two separate sheets will also be for- 
warded on which these particulars will appear, either by means of 
one or more detail drawings or a written description. 

Art. 6. The application should set forth the name of the manu- 
factory, its location, the residence of the proprietor, and the kind of 
trade or industry in which the applicant desires to use the trade-mark. 

Art. 7. A trade-mark owned by a foreigner not residing in the 
Republic can not be registered therein unless previously and regularly 
registered in the country where originated. 

Art. 8. Only such persons as shall have made legal use of a trade- 
mark may acquire ownership thereof. In case of a contest between 
two owners of the same mark, the ownership will vest in the original 



MEXICO. 329 

possessor, or, in case possession can not be proven, in the first appli- 
cant. 

Art. 9. The exclusive ownership of a trade-mark can not be exer- 
cised except by virtue of a certificate of the Department of Promotion 
to the effect that the party in interest has reserved his rights after 
having complied with all legal requisites. 

Art. 10. The certificate referred to in the preceding article will be 
issued without previous examination, on the exclusive responsibility 
of the applicants, and without prejudice to the rights of third parties. 

The Department of Promotion will cause the application to be pub- 
lished, and in case of contest, filed within ninety days succeeding date 
of publication, the mark will not be registered until the courts shall 
decide which party is entitled to registration. 

Art. 11. Trade-raarks can only be transferred with the business for 
whose manufactures or trade they serve as a distinctive device; the 
transfer, however, is not subject to any special formality and will be 
carried into effect according to the provisions of law. 

Art. 12. The duration of the ownership of trade-marks is indefinite, 
but the right will be considered as abandoned by the closing or failure 
to produce for more than a year of the establishment, manufactory, 
or business employing the same. 

Art. 13. Trade-marks deposited shall be preserved in the Depart- 
ment of Promotion, where the registration may be examined, during 
the hours set apart for the purpose by the said Department, by any 
person so desiring, and who, at his own expense, may procure a cer- 
tified copy of the registration. 

Art. 14. The property in a trade-mark obtained in violation of the 
foregoing provisions shall be judicially declared void on application 
of interested parties. 

Art. 15. The judge hearing the case in which the property in a 
trade-mark shall be declared void shall give notice of the final judg- 
ment therein to the Department of Promotion. 

Art. 16. Trade-marks are counterfeited — 

I. When trade-marks are used which are facsimiles of a registered 
trade-mark. 

II. When the imitation is so exact a reproduction of a registered 
trade-mark, although it may differ in certain details, that it may be 
taken for the same. 

Art. 17. All such as shall have counterfeited or made use of a coun- 
terfeit trade-mark, provided it be in connection with articles of the 
same industrial or commercial character, shall be guilty of the crime 
of counterfeiting, wherever the same may have been committed. 

Art. 18. Crimes of counterfeiting trade-marks shall be subject to 
the penalties prescribed by the code applicable to the case, and shall 
be liable further to an action for damages. 



330 



MEXICO. 



Art. 19. The provisions of this law shall also cover industrial draw- 
ings and models. 

The fee charged for the trade-mark is 10 pesos. 

Under the provisions of this law the number of applications for 
trade-mark registration from 1890 to 1897 was: 



1890, 
1891. 
1892. 
1893. 



97 
112 
161 
108 



1894, 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 



79 

91 

101 

207 



or a total of 956, according to official figures. 



CHAPTEK XVIII. 

COST OF lilVING— WAGES TO LABOR— BUILDING, ETC. 

It may be said in a general way that the cost of living in Mexico is 
not great, although, of course, it varies in different localities. In the 
interior towns and villages the common necessaries of life, such as 
beef, vegetables, etc., are cheap. Coffee and tea, the latter being very 
seldom used or seen in the interior, are expensive. Imported goods 
are also expensive, as to their cost in gold must be added the import 
duties and the merchants' profits. The native food is rich and highly 
seasoned. Meals may be had at the hotels in the interior for about 50 
cents each; board and lodging at these hotels range from $2 to $2.50 
per day. 

In the City of Mexico living is more expensive. Hotels charge from 
$2. 50 to $10, silver, per day. Good meals may be procured at any first- 
class restaurant for $1. 

Ready-made clothing, such as is to be found in the United States, is 
not much in vogue; but imported English and French cloth is made 
up into suits at about the same cost as in the United States. The large 
dry -goods establishments, millinery stores, etc., are as well stocked as 
those of the larger cities of the United States, and for imported goods 
the prices vary very little from those prevailing in the latter country. 

Rents in the City of Mexico, however, are very high. This is due 
to the cost of house building, the municipal tax of 12 per cent on the 
annual rental, pavement, drainage, water, and stamp taxes. The 
expense in taxes on a house costing $10,000 to build, and renting for 
$75 per month, is $13.08 per month, or about 17i per cent of the 
receipts. 

There is not much money to be saved by hiring private lodgings 
unless it is proposed to take them for a protracted period. Furnished 
rooms in desirable localities cost nearly as much as hotel apartments. 
Although unfurnished rooms may be secured, the cost for furnishing 
them is very considerable; still they rent for about one-half the amount 
charged for furnished rooms. Casas de huespedes, corresponding to 
the American boarding house, abound; but as a rule the meals served 
are not of the best. Their charges are relatively moderate. The 
hotels, generally, in the smaller cities and towns, are not provided 
with baths, but in the City of Mexico, as everywhere else, there are 
excellent public baths. The prices at these establishments are, usually, 

331 



332 MEXICO. 

for cold baths, 1 real (12^ cents); for warm baths, 2 reales (25 cents). ^ 
Street tramways in the City of Mexico generally charge 6i cents. 
Hackney coaches are divided into four classes, distinguished by tin 
flags painted in different colors, indicating the charge per hour for 
each, as follows: White flag, 60 cents per hour; red flag, $1 per hour; 
blue flag, 11.60 per hour. Good livery stables abound and saddle 
horses may be secured at the rate of $3 for a morning's ride, or ^ for 
an entire afternoon. A tourist intending to take a short trip to Mexico 
would do well to calculate his expenses at $10 per day, including trav- 
eling expenses. 

Labor is abundant in Mexico; in some places the supply is greater 
than the demand, and as the laboring classes can live on such frugal 
diet and need so little clothing, wages, except for imported skilled 
labor, are small. 

The hacendados, as the large landowners are called, own immense 
tracts of land, and the hacienda^ or manor, is a congregation of build- 
ings, forming at times quite a settlement. The hacendado usually 
works his possessions in accordance with the traditions handed down 
from the time of the Spanish conquest, and he is not only a land- 
owner, but he is a dealer in provisions, clothing, etc. His " peones," as 
the laborers and the tillers of his soil are called, are generally descended 
from those his father had before him, and they are paid, live, and 
work as their progenitors, and receive generally from 20 to 37i cents 
a day. 

With respect to the rates of wages paid in the Republic, the United 
States Minister to Mexico, under date of September 26, 1896,*^ reported 
to the Department of State that the amount of wages paid varies 
throughout the Republic, being higher in some sections than in others, 
and in certain mining districts lower than the}^ were ten to fifteen 
years ago. This is generally owing to local causes. As a matter of 
course, owing to the construction and management of 7,000 miles of 
railroads, the introduction of electricity, and the placing of new and 
improved machinery in many of the mines and in some of the agri- 
cultural districts, there has been an increase in the number of skilled 
laborers, and some increase in the demand for the same, but it is true 
that with the great mass of the Mexican laborers there has been but 
little, if any, change in the amount of wages paid. 

As might naturally be expected, there are some instances where 
laborers receive more than they did ten years ago, but these are the 
exceptions. There are also many instances where less is received. 
The daily wage paid to the farm laborer hired by the day does not 
exceed 30 cents, taking into account the whole laboring agricultural 

^ Mexican currency. 

^ United States Consular Reports, special report, ' ' Money and Prices in Foreign 
Countries," Vol. XII, Part I, p. 16. 



MEXICO. 333 

population. There are instances where the day laborer receives 
50 cents per day; but again there are also instances where he only 
receives 15 to 20 cents. The Secretary of the Treasury of Mexico 
estimates the daily wage of farm laborers at 25 cents. 

To obtain a correct idea of the daily wages paid to the agricultural 
laborer it is well to divide the Republic into three districts: 

First. The tropical or hot country, where labor is scarcer than on 
the table-lands and there is not the same necessity to work. Here, 
on the coffee plantations, the laborers receive from 37 to 50 cents per 
day. 

Second. The central plateau, or table-lands, which constitute the 
greater portion of Mexico as regards wealth, population, etc. Here 
the wages vary from 12^ to 60 cents per day, the average being from 
18 to 35 cents. 

Third. The northern portion. Here labor is scarce, the influence of 
American customs is felt to some extent, and wages are higher than 
in the central portion. 

A large portion of the farming in Mexico is carried on under the 
' ' share system. " The Government reports show that in many instances 
rations of corn are furnished to the hired laborer. In some cases we 
find that he is allowed a small amount per day for his board, in addi- 
tion to wages; again, he is furnished by the landlord with a small piece 
of land to cultivate for his own benefit. 

The wages of unskilled laborers in the fields, on the farms, in shops, 
and all other places where such labor is employed are from 25 to 30 
cents a day for men, and for women and boys from a third to a half 
less, the only rations ever furnished being corn and beans. 

In the mines the wages of the same class of labor are from 40 to 60 
and to 80 cents a day and no rations. 

In the factories the wages of this same class are from 18 to 25 and 37 
to 62 cents a day, without rations. 

The wages of a higher class of operatives in the factories vary from 
45 to 75 cents per day and no rations. 

A day's labor in Mexico is from nine to thirteen hours. 

The prevailing style of architecture throughout Mexico, so far as 
regards what may be termed modern buildings as contradistinguished 
from the ruined temples and palaces of the Republic, is the Spanish 
renaissance. The cathedrals and churches are all built in this style. 
Arabesque work and stone carvings ornament the fapades of nearly 
all religious edifices. Governmental buildings and those devoted to 
public uses are generally imposing and commodious. The National 
Palace in Mexi*) has a frontage of 675 feet and is two stories high. 

Private houses are always substantially built, generally in a rec- 
tangular form around a courtyard. It is rare, except at the capital, 
to see a private residence over two stories high. The roofs are flat, 



334 MEXICO. 

with a wall running entirely around them. The roof is called the 
azotea, and in the warmer region is often utilized by the residents for 
sleeping purposes during the dry season. Growing plants and shrubs 
are often to be seen on the azotea and in the courtyard. The windows 
of the houses are generally barred with railings of iron. The larger 
residences are constructed of igneous rock, such as porous amygdaloid, 
porphyry, or trachyte. Dwellings are made usually of brick and 
tepetate (a kind of clay thickly sprinkled with sand and pebbles, which 
is soft when taken out of the deposit, but on exposure becomes exceed- 
ingly hard) and are stuccoed. 

Some very fine examples of modern architecture may now be seen 
along the Paseo de la Reforma in the capital, where the wealthy class 
have erected several imposing residences with every comfort incident 
to those of more northern climes. 

On the table-lands houses in the smaller towns and villages are con- 
structed of adobe, a sun-dried brick made of dark clay mixed with 
straw. 

The peons in the warm, well-wooded regions build of wood, paim 
leaves, and stalks; in the table-lands, of adobe, the houses having flat 
roofs of stamped clay supported by beams. 

In the Indian villages the rudest possible habitations are to be seen, 
often being mere frameworks of limbs of trees, with the bark on, and 
thatched in on all sides with grass, palm leaves, or stalks. This, of 
course, does not apply to the City of Mexico, which is to-day a modern 
city of the first class. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



MISCELLANEOUS DATA. 



Area of the States and Territories of Mexico. 



CBNTKAL STATES. 



Federal District 
Aguascalientes . . 

Durango - 

Guanajuato 

Hidalgo 

Mexico - - 

Morelos 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

San Luis Potosi.. 

Tlaxcala . .: 

Zacatecas 



NORTHERN STATES. 



Myriares. a 

1,200 

7,644 

98, 470 

29, 458 

23, 101 

23, 957 

7,184 

31,616 

9,215 

65, 586 

4,132 

64, 138 



Chihuahua... 227,468 

Coahuila 161,550 

NuevoLeon J 62,998 

Sonora 199,224 



GULP STATES. 



Campeche . 
Tabasco . . . 
Tamaulipas 
Veracruz . . 
Yucatdn . . . 



Myriares. a 
46, 855 
26, 094 
84, 394 
75, 651 
91, 201 



STATES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 



Baja California (Territory) . . . 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Guerrero 

Jalisco 

Michoaciin 

Oaxaca 

Sinaloa 

Tepic (Territory) 



151, 109 
5,887 
70, 524 
64, 756 
82, 503 
59, 261 
91, 664 
87, 231 
29, 211 



Total...- 1,983,282 



Area of the islands. 



Guadalupe (Pacific Ocean) . . . 

Cedros (Pacific Ocean) 

Santa Margarita (Pacific 
Ocean) 

Creciente (Pacific Ocean) 

Eevillagigedo (Pacific Ocean). 
Tres Marias (Pacific Ocean) .. 
Tiburon (Gulf of California) . 
Angel de la Guarda (Pacific 

Ocean) 

Montague (Pacific Ocean) 

San Esteban (Pacific Ocean) . 
San Lorenzo (Pacific Ocean) . 

San Jose (Pacific Ocean) 

Cerralvo (Pacific Ocean) 

Santa Catalina (Pacific Ocean) 



208 
343 

171 
32 
186 
232 
963 

636 

47 
41 
49 
190 
113 
66 



Monserrate (Pacific Ocean) .. 

Cdrmen (Pacific Ocean) 

San Mdrcos 

Partida (Pacific Ocean) 

Cozumel (Caribbean Sea) 

Mujeres (Canal of Yucatdn) . 
Espiritu Santo (Gulf of Cali- 
fornia) 

Other small islands 

Total 



18 

134 

24 

1 

406 

4 

96 

82 



4,042 



Total area of the States and 

Territories 1,983,282 

Total area of the islands 4, 042 



Grand total 1,987,234 

a One myriare is equal to 1,000,000 square meters, or 1,196,000 square yards, or 247,105 acres. 

335 



336 



MEXICO. 



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MEXICO. 337 

Altitude of some mounta, valleys, and notable railway stations. 



State. 



Veracruz 

Mexico and Puebla 
Mexico 

Do 

Do 

Puebla and Tlax- 
cala. 

Mexico 

Veracruz 

Federal District . : . 

Jalisco 

Puebla 

Do 

Oaxaca 

Mexico 

Puebla 

Hidalgo 

Puebla 

Mexico 

Oaxaca 

Teplc 

Zacatecas 

Michoac^n 

Tlaxcala 

Puebla 

Hidalgo 

San Luis PotosI 

Mlchoacto 

Hidalgo 

Guanajuato 

Durango 

Veracruz 

Do 

San Luis Potosi 

Tamaulipas 

Durango 

Guerrero 

Michoacto 

Jalisco 

Federal District . . . 



M6xico . . 

Veracruz 

Do... 

Puebla . . 



Name. 



Pico de Orizaba (Citlal- 

tepec). 

Popocatepetl 

Ixtacihuatl (iiighest 

point). 
Ixtacihuatl (top rock). 
Ixtacihuatl (foot rock). 
Malinche 



Nevado de Toluca 

Cofre de Perote (Nauh- 
campantepetl). 

Ajusco 

VolcAn de Colima 

Las Derrumbadas 

Ocelotzin 

Cempoaltepec (summit) 
Sumate 



Pinal. 



Jacal 6 Navajas (near 
Real del Monte). 

Chichintepee 

Tarimangacho (near 
Tlalpujahua). 

Cumbre de los Ocotes.. 

Ceboruco 



Bufa 

Jorullo 

Llanos de Apam , 



San Juan de los Llanos 
tlanos del Cazadero . . . 
Llanos de " El Salado " . 

PAtzcuaro 

Tula 

ElBajlo 

Cuencam^ 

Valle de Maltrata 

Valle de Orizaba 

Valle del Maiz 

Tula 

Vegas de Nazas 

Iguala 

Jorullo 

Acap<)neta 

La Cima 



Salazar. 



Las Vigas 

Boca del Monte. 
Amozoc 



Class. 



Volcano . 



.do. 
.do. 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 

.do. 
.do. 



Mount... 
Volcano . 
Mount... 

do... 

do... 

do... 



.do. 
.do. 



.do. 
.do. 



do... 

Volcano . 

Mount... 
Volcano . 
Plain . . . . 



do 

do 

do 

Valley 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Railway station 

on the Cuerna- 

vaca and Aca- 

pulco R. R. 
Railway station 

on the Compa- 

nia Nacional 

Mexicana. 
Railway station 

on the Veracruz 

and Jalapa. 
Railway station 

on the Nacional 

Mexicano. 
Railroad station . . 



Altitude. 



Meters. 
5,700 

5,452 
5,286 

5,146 
4,740 
4,461 

4,623 
4,281 

3,986 
3, 960. 09 
3, 598. 09 

3. 500. 06 
3,396 

3. 352. 07 

3,316 

3, 137. 05 

3,072 
3, 068. 04 

3,056 
2,164 

1,383 
1,300 
2,480 

2,360 

2,300 

2, 000-2, 300 

2, 000-2, 150 

2,047 

1,750-1,790 

1,740 

1,691 

1,227 

1,220 

1,171 

1,100 

919 

850 

64 

3,040 



3,000 

2, 421. 10 
2, 415. 36 
2,320 



Authority. 



Comisi6n Geogrdflca 
Exploradora. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Humboldt. 
Comision Geogrdflca 

Exploradora. 
Do. 
Matute y BArcena. 
Almazto. 

Do. 
Harcort. 
Report of Podro G. 

Conde. 
Comision Geogrdfica 

Exploradora. 
Burkart. 

AlmazAn. 
Burkart. 

Harcort. 

Matute, Iglesias y B^r- 

cena. 
Bustamante. 
Humboldt. 

Data collected by Sr. 
Ferrari. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Data from the Minis- 
terio de Comunica- 
ciones. 

Do. 



Do. 
Do. 
Do. 



651 A- 



-22 



338 



MEXICO. 



General synopsis of the meteorological observations taken in several places of the Republic 

during the year 1897. 



Places. 



Barometer reduced to 0. 



Mean 
annual. 



Maxi- 
mum 
abso- 
lute. 



Mini- 
mum 
abso- 
lute. 



Temperature in the 
shade. a 



Mean 
annual. 



Maxi- 
mum 
abso- 
lute. 



Mini- 
mum 
abso- 
lute. 



Mean 
annual 
humid- 
ity per- 

cent- 



Colima (seminary) 

Guadalajara (hospital) 

Guadalajara (Government palace) . 

Guanajuato 

Jalapa 

Leon 

Linares (Nuevo Leon) 

Magdalena (Sonora) 

MazatlS,n 

M^rida 

Mexico (Central Observatory) 

Monterey 

Morelia (seminary) 

Oaxaca 

Pachuca 

Puebla (Catholic college) 

Puebla (State college) 

Quer^taro 

Real del Monte 

San Luis Potosi 

Saltillo (San Juan College) 

Silao 

Toluca 

Trejo (plantation) 

Zacatecas 



Mm. 
718.3 
633.1 
634.7 
601.7 
648.7 
617.3 



Mm. 



Mm. 



639.3 

641 

607.8 

656.9 

624 



630.1 

628.6 

596 

641.8 

612.1 



759.9 

760.3 

586.2 

716. 2 

609.2 

637 

573.4 

593.8 

593.2 

614.7 

549.2 

613.5 

630.7 

616.7 

557.2 



766 

770.2 

591. 9 

727.6 

614.1 

643.3 

578 

598.3 

597.9 

620.5 



755. 2 

763.8 

580.6 

705.7 

603.5 

633.3 

570 

589.7 

588.8 

609.3 



620 
638.6 
623.9 
561.9 



606.6 
624.4 
611.7 
552.4 



24.7 

20.2 

19.9 

18.2 

18 

18.6 

22.1 

21.4 

25.4 

26.2 

16.3 

22.3 

17.7 

20.9 

14.6 

18.2 

16.7 

18.3 

12.4 

17.8 

18.5 

19.8 

14.3 



36.7 

34.1 

35 

32.9 

35 

32.9 

38.8 



8.3 

2.2 

0.4 

3.1 

5 

2.4 

4.5 



33.3 

39 

29.8 

40 

31 

35 

30.4 

30 

27.7 

32.8 



12.7 
12 

2 

2.9 

3 

4.1 

- 0.8 

- 0.7 
1.7 

- 0.3 



30.6 
36.1 
30.8 
27.8 



1.7 
0.6 
3.9 
3.2 



572.4 



577.5 



566.7 



15.8 



29 



Places. 



■Rainy 
days. 



Total 
rain- 
fall. 



Rainfall. 



Largest monthly 
rainfall. 



Month. Amount 



Maximum altitude 
in 24 hours. 



Date. Amount. 



Colima tseminary) 

Guadalajara ^hospital) 

Guadalajara (Government palace) 

Guanajuato 

Jalapa 

Leon 

Linares (Nuevo Leon) 

Magdalena (Sonora) 

MazatlAn 

M6rida 

Mexico (Central Observatory) 

Monterey 

Morelia (seminary) 

Oaxaca 

Pachuca 

Puebla (Catholic college) 

Puebla (State college) 

Quer6taro 

Real del Monte 

San Luis Potosi 

Saltillo (San Juan College) 

Silao 

Toluca 

Trejo (plantation) 

Zacatecas 



127 

77 

78 

126 

174 

118 

93 

50 

67 

115 

139 

90 

145 

121 

66 

103 

137 

93 

112 

67 

72 

102 

123 

69 

69 



Mm. 
900.3 
1877. 3 
1076 
740.2 
1193. 3 
571.6 
858.1 
636.8 
695.3 
875 
652.1 
561.1 
580.3 
843.9 



June 

Do 

August 

July 

June 

July 

May 

August 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

September. 
June 



Mm. 
241.7 
620. 3 
395.3 
241.4 
298.4 
210.8 
296 
202 
266.5 
267.1 
153.9 
146.4 
145.6 
252.2 



June 12 
July 2 
Aug. 25 
Aug. 8 
June 18 
July 4 
May 5 
Sept. 19 
Aug. 19 
Aug. 29 
Sept. 5 
Nov. 22 
Sept. 12 
June 11 



Mm. 
49.7 

160 
9L5 
47 
47 
36.2 

104 
79 
81.8 
53.2 
48.7 
72.4 
27.2 

102.8 



908.4 

828 

518.6 

779.9 

367.8 

343 

577.7 

549.6 

803.7 

784.9 



August , 
July.... 
August . 

Do. 
June . . . 
August 

Do., 
July.... 
August . 
July..., 



258.8 

201.6 

136.5 

169.2 

118.4 

103 

185.1 

166.9 

280.6 

223. 9 



Sept. 11 
Sept. 6 
June 3 
Oct. 4 
June 4 
May 31 
Aug. 31 
June 23 
Aug. 28 
June 26 



61 

44.3 

38.5 

38.9 

45.2 

26 

50.2 

36.2 

77 

53.2 



o Centigrade. 



MEXICO. 



339 



General synopsis of the meteorological observations taken in several places of the Republic 
during the year 1897 — Continued. 



Places. 



Clouds. 



Mean 
annual 
quan- 
tity. 



Predomi- 
nant di- 
rection. 



Wind. 



Mean 
veloci- 
ty per 
second. 



Predomi- 
nant di- 
rection. 



Maxi- 
mum 
veloci- 
ty per 
second. 



Evaporation. 



In the 
shade. 



Open 
air. 



Colima (seminary) 

Guadalajara f hospital) 

Guadalajara (Government palace). 

Guanajuato 

Jalapa 

Leon 

Linares (Nuevo Leon) 

Magdalena (Sonora) 

Mazatl4n 

M^rida 

Mexico (Central Observatory) 

Monterey 

Morelia (seminary) 

Oaxaca 

Pachuca 

Puebla (Catholic college) 

Puehla (State college) 

Quer6taro 

Real del Monte 

San Luis Potosi 

Saltillo (San Juan College) 

Silao 

Toluca 

Trejo (plantation) 

Zacatecas 



4.6 

3.1 

6.5 

5 

6.1 

5.6 



SW. 



wsw. 

SW. 



E. 



5.5 
3.5 
4.5 
5.3 
4.8 
5.9 
4.5 
4.5 
3.5 
4.9 
4.5 
4.6 
4.1 
3.9 
4.1 
4.7 



N. 
SW. 
B.,W 
NB. 
NE. 
W. 
NB. 



ENE. 



W. 

N. 
SW. 



M. 
1.5 



1.5 

'i.'i' 



3.2 
1.9 
1.1 
.6 
L4 
1.5 



.9 

1.6 

1.2 

.7 

.8 

1.3 

's.'i' 

'".6 



SW. 

SW. 



ENE. 

NNW. 

ssw. 

SSE. 
SW. 
NW. 
NE. 
NW. 
NE. 
SSW. 
NW. 
NNB. 

E. 
NE. 

E. 
N.,S. 

N,SW. 

W. 
ENE. 



M. 



18.1 
9 

17 



19 
6.8 

15 
7.5 
6.7 

12.5 



15 

20.8 

10 

3.7 
17 

9.7 
12 
20 



Mm. 
4.2 
4.8 
4.7 
3.6 
2.9 
3.3 



E. 



18 



2.5 
1.9 
2.6 



7.1 
5.3 



6.3 
2.9 



3.9 

"i.'s 



Mm. 



9.2 
7.1 
6.9 



7 

7.4 

6.2 

7.8 



9 

5.2 



5.6 



Births, deaths, and marriages during the year 1896, and population in 1895. 



Births. 



Male. 



Female. 



Total. 



Legiti- 
mate. 



Illegiti- 
mate. 



Aguascalientes . 

Campeche 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Distrito Federal 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Michoacto 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

San Luis Potosi. 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

Yucatto 

Zacatecas 

Baja California. 
Tepic 

Total 



723 

1,671 

3,487 

958 

5,247 

5,604 

2,408 

3,482 

14, 543 

9,489 

17, 306 

24, 990 

10, 755 

12, 007 

2,688 

6,217 

17, 835 

12,241 

2,054 

7,111 

4,508 

2,269 

3,199 

2,148 

2,966 

14, 200 

7,838 

10,483 

364 

1,945 



633 
1,734 
3,198 
996 
5,057 
5,188 
1,873 
3,200 

13,584 
8,795 

15, 906 

23, 617 
9,813 

11, 200 
2,613 
5,781 

16, 543 

11, 407 
1,771 
6,949 
4,097 
2,001 
2,934 
1,903 
3,133 

12, 798 

7, 617 

9,821 

275 

1,817 



1,356 
3,405 

6,685 
1,954 
10, 304 
10, 792 
4,276 
6,682 
28, 127 
18,284 
33, 212 
48, 607 
20, 568 
23, 207 
5,301 
11,998 
34, 378 
23, 648 
3,825 
14, 060 
8,605 
4,270 
6,133 
4,051 
6,099 
26, 998 
15, 455 
20, 304 
639 
3,762 



1,242 

2,503 

6,161 

1,246 

2,800 

8,922 

2,389 

4,740 

12, 615 

14, 188 

10, 146 

42,392 

16,442 

5,215 

3,143 

11, 032 

12, 720 

13, 736 

2,989 

11,507 



2,964 

3,146 

3,077 

5,167 

10, 248 

12, 424 

17, 080 

352 

2,247 



114 

902 

524 

708 

7,504 

1,870 

1,887 

1,942 

15, 512 

4,096 

28,066 

6,215 

4,126 

17, 992 

2,168 

966 

21, 668 

9,912 

836 

2,558 



1,306 

2,987 

974 

942 

16, 750 

3,031 

3,274 

287 

1,515 



210, 731 



196, 254 



406, 985 



242, 773 



155, 607 



340 MEXICO. 

Births, deaths, and marriages during the year 1896, and population in 1896 — Continued. 



States. 



Mexi- 
cans. 



For- 
eign. 



Male. 



Fe- 
male. 



Total. 



Marriages. 



«in<rio Wid- Mexi- 
^'"^^^- owed. cans. 



Popula- 
tion, 

census 
1895. 



Aguascalientes . 

Campechc , 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Distrito Federal 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco , 

Mexico , 

MichoacAn 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Quer6taro 

San Luis Potosi . . 

Sinaloa , 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

YucatAn 

Zacatecas , 

Baja California.. 
Tepic , 



4,190 

1,994 

6,508 

'2, 22t) 

{), 321 

0,192 

23, 274 

6,481 

36, 047 

13, 325 

21,521 

32, 729 

32, 077 

26, 395 

8,326 

8,765 

26, 995 

33, 836 

6,909 

18, 466 



3,260 
3, 220 
4,566 
5,613 
25, 736 
12, 834 
15, 416 
585 
4,699 



221 
19 

12 
2 

24 
12 
13 
21 
6 
34 
26 
24 
3 
77 



175 
75 
15 
17 
3 



2, 215 
969 
3,329 
1,208 
3,364 
3,074 
12, 208 
3,322 
18, 579 
6,881 
11,520 
17, 007 
16, 434 
13, 686 
4,248 
4,413 
14, 276 
17, 464 
3,605 
9,688 
2,702 
1,733 
1,642 
2,447 
2,841 
13, 770 
6,422 
7,868 
331 
2,486 



1,978 
1,047 
3,214 
1,018 
3, 045 
3,166 
11, 287 
3,178 
17, 480 
6,446 
10, 026 
15, 734 
15, 656 
12, 730 
4,084 
4,384 
12, 745 
16, 396 
3,306 
8,855 
2,345 
1,562 
1,598 
2,193 
2,772 
12, 141 
6,487 
7,563 
271 
2,216 



4,193 

2,016 

6,643 

2, 226 

6,409 

6,240 

23, 495 

6,500 

36, 059 

13, 327 

21, 545 

32, 741 

32, 090 

26,416 

8,332 

8,797 

27, 021 

33, 860 

6,911 

18, 543 

5,047 

3, 295 

3,240 

4,640 

5,613 

25, 911 

12, 909 

15, 431 

602 

4,702 



797 
1,202 
4,007 

360 
2,223 
3,462 
2,214 
2,565 
3,957 
7,157 
2,465 
16, 563 
5,775 
3,170 
1,138 
4,148 
3,220 
4,453 
1,019 
4,179 



1,426 
1,232 
2,166 
1,781 
4,751 
4,712 
5,160 
366 
995 



113 
110 
233 

44 

1 

146 

82 
133 
331 
637 

67 

2,133 

613 

218 

66 
350 
132 
305 

37 
283 



102 
48 
128 
137 
157 
624 
514 
18 
59 



906 
1,306 
4,209 

390 
2,212 
3,575 
2,164 
2,678 
4,276 
7,793 
2,531 
18, 686 
6, 274 
3,384 
1,203 
4,480 
3,338 
4,738 
1,064 
4,449 



1,510 
1,263 
2,277 
1,918 
4,819 
6,215 
6,668 
361 
1,050 



104,615 
88, 302 
241,026 
55, 752 
319, 599 
262, 771 
476, 413 
286, 906 
1, 062, 554 
417, 621 
658,769 
1,107,227 
841, 618 
894, 753 
169, 355 
309, 252 
884, 909 
984, 413 
228, 551 
568,449 
258, 865 
191, 281 
134,839 
206, 502 
166, 803 
866,355 
298, 850 
452, 578 
42, 245 
158, 776 



Total 



398, 503 



1,104 



209, 732 



194, 922 



404, 664 



96, 663 



103, 726 



12, 619, 949 



Estimated value of the city and suburban property in Mexico on December 31, 1897. 
[Values in Mexican silver.] 



States. 



City. 



Total. 



Aguascalientes 

Campeche 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

MichoacAn 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

QuerStaro 

San Luis Potosi 

Sinaloa , 

Sonora 

Tabasco , 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

YucatAn 

Zacatecas 

Territory of Tepic . 
Baja California: 

Distrito "Sur" . 

Distrito ' ' Norte 
Distrito Federal 

Total , 



$1,713, 
3, 920, 
4, 640, 
1,388, 
3, 163, 
2,711, 
3, 966, 

11, 368, 
1,120, 
1, 969, 

20, 777, 
8,256, 
9, 170, 
1,505, 
5, 870, 
7, 30'', 

20, 233, 
4,106, 
7, 604, 
5, 124, 
2, 628, 
4, 346, 
5, 678, 
845, 

19, 784, 

11,766, 
8, 173, 
2, 626, 



936. 71 
927. 10 
686. 00 
394. 00 
465. 50 
378. 30 
943. 00 
749. 00 
704. 00 
793. 94 
103. 00 
352.51 
426. 00 
829. 96 
605. 27 
945. 91 
410. 07 
347. 00 
934. 02 
259. 00 
832. 30 
111.00 
890. 68 
582. 00 
826. 68 
078. 52 
748. 23 
257. 00 



938, 467. 17 

193, 602. 20 

115, 449, 807. 37 



959. 57 
668. 64 
695. 00 
620. 00 
645. 18 
962. 72 
062. 00 
405. 00 
103. 00 
106. 48 
872. 00 

381. 83 
627.00 
964. 92 
165. 51 
092. 11 
992. 63 
933. 00 
613,23 
295. 00 
345.35 

465. 84 
462. 14 
867. 00 
849. 28 
238. 31 
178. 33 
786. 00 



609, 527. 90 
416, 437. 18 
963, 470. 22 



298,254,292.44 



362, 068, 671. 37 



14, 835, 

7, 608, 
12, 368, 

3, 808, 
25, 003, 

7, 993, 
12, 706, 
44, 163, 

3, 188, 
19, 449, 
52, 074, 
35, 007, 

31. 648, 
9, 083, 

12. 649, 
15, 473, 
49, 782, 
13,487, 
19, 204, 

9,127, 
6, 804, 
8, 918, 
10, 044, 
7, 636, 
43, 394, 
21,913, 
23, 189, 
5, 286, 



896. 28 
595. 74 
281.00 
014. 00 
110. 68 
341. 02 
006. 00 
154.00 
807. 00 
900. 42 
975. 00 
734. 34 
053. 00 
794. 88 
770. 78 
038. 02 
402. 70 
280. 00 
447. 25 
554.00 
177. 65 
566. 84 

352. 82 
439. 00 
674. 96 

316. 83 
926. 56 
042.00 



4, 547, 995. 07 

1,610,039.38 

138, 413, 277. 59 



660, 322, 963. 81 



MEXICO. 



341 



Total revenues and expenditures of the States of Mexico from 1888 to 1897. 
[Values in Mexican silver.] 



States. 



Total revenues. 



Total expendi- 
tures. 



Aguascalientes. . . 

CampecUe 

Coahuila , 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Durango , 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco , 

M6xico 

Michoacto 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Quer^taro 

San Luis Potosi . . 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

YucatAn 

Zacatecas 

Total 

Federal Treasury 

Grand total 



130. 345. 65 
345, 320. 67 
290, 743. 16 
417, 386. 52 

127. 592. 66 
268, 143. 59 
676, 673. 93 
869, 737. 09 
814, 527. 55 
403, 192. 91 
904, 430. 05 
612,211.66 

563. 909. 71 
445, 649. 14 
821, 905. 61 

532. 831. 72 
015, 179. 31 
106, 665. 84 
955,433.91 
357, 041. 80 
826,321.74 
984, 446. 09 
595, 014. 55 
772, 562. 05 
259, 321. 33 
117, 743. 30 
926,738.58 



$1,119, 
2, 258, 
2, 888, 
1, 399, 
2,879, 
1, 865, 
5, 610, 

11, 556, 
2, 558, 

14, 102, 

13, 068, 
8, 319, 
9,441, 
3,410, 
1, 625, 
6, 097, 

10, 834, 
3, 099, 

13, 189, 
5, 255, 

■ 4,554, 
2, 975, 
1, 569, 
1, 772, 
5, 916, 
5, 974, 
9,891, 



522. 11 
715. 30 
696.25 
714. 25 

662. 86 
339. 02 
073.97 
992. 09 
917. 62 
409. 83 
721.75 
536. 71 
716. 58 
995. 65 
426.89 
778. 28 
076. 32 

268. 87 
836. 13 
783. 17 
457. 98 
864. 02 
735. 96 
825. 82 
584. 69 
789. 89 
385.40 



160,141,070.12 
471,933,381.41 



153, 238, 827. 41 
546, 608, 816. 48 



632, 074, 451. 53 



699, 847, 643. 89 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

The metric system is in official use in the Republic of Mexico, hav- 
ing been adopted by the Government in the year 1862. It is used to 
compute all customs and other duties to be paid to the General Govern- 
ment, in the measurement of public lands, and by the railroads in all 
freight and other transactions, and is exclusively taught in the public 
schools. The old-time weights and measures were founded on Spanish 
models, but, owing to the inexactness of the first standards and to sub- 
sequent changes, difi'er at present very widely from their originals. 
The value of the metric system here assigned to each denomination of 
the old weights and measures is that fixed by the Mexican Govern- 
ment at the time of the adoption of the metric system. These tables 
are from the first edition of the Handbook of Mexico, published by 
the Bureau of the American Republics in 1891. They are reproduced 
here because the nomenclature of the old system is still in use in pub- 
lications on Mexico. By law of June 19, 1895, the metric system was 
declared the only legal system of weights and measures in the country, 
and became compulsory throughout the Republic on September 16, 
1896. The equivalents in American weights and measures were 
calculated from data found in Trautwine's Pocket Book as to the 
comparison between French and American weights and measures, and 
are believed to be correct. 



342 



MEXICO. 



LINEAR MEASURES. 

1 legua (league) = 5,000 varas = 4.19 kilometers = 2.604375 miles. 
1 vara (yard) = 3 pi6s = 0.83800 meter = 2.749578 feet. 

1 pie (foot) = 12 pulgadas = 0.27933 meter = 0.916526 foot. 

1 pulgada (inch) = 12 lineas = 0.02328 meter = 0.916526 inch. 
1 linea (line) = 0.00194 meter = 0.076377 inch. 

The vara is also divided (for dry -goods selling) into palmos or cuartas (palms or 
quarters). 

1 palmo or cuarta = 0.209500 meter = 0.687394 foot = 8.248728 inches. 



1 square legua 
1 square vara 
1 square pi6 
1 square palmo 
1 square pulgada 



SUPERFICIAL OR SQUARE MEASURE. 

= 1,755.61 hectares = 4,339.4 acres. 

= 0.702244 square meter = 7.559000 square feet. 
= 0.078027 square meter = 0.839888 square foot. 
= 0.043890 square meter = 68.03094 square inches. 
0.000542 square meter = 0.84012 square inch. 

Land or agrarian measures. 



Spanish name. 


Nearest Englisli equiva- 
lent. 


Length 
(varas). 


Breadth 

(varas). 


Hectares. 


Acres. 


Hacienda 




25, 000 
5,000 
3,333i 
1,200 
1,000 
1,104 
276 

50 


5,000 
5,000 
3,333i 
1,200 
1,000 
552 
184 

50 


8, 778. 0500000 
1,755.6100000 
780. 2711111 
101. 1231360 
70.2244000 
42. 7953111 
3.5662759 

. 1755610 


21,697.000 
4 339 400 


Sitio de ganado mayor 


Cow ranch 


Sitio de ganado menor 


Sheep ranch. 


1 928 133 


Fundo legal para pueblo 


Legal town site 


244 140 


Labor 


Field 


175. 532 

105.751 

8.813 

.434 


Caballeria de tierra 


Knighthold of land 

Sowing ground for 1 fa- 
nega of com. 

Site for a house, mill, or 
inn. 


Fanega sembradura de maiz. 

Solar para casa, molino, 6 
venta. 



HYDROMETRIC MEASURE. 

This was used for measuring and distributing water for irrigation 
and domestic uses: 

lbuey{ox) —48 mrcos. 

1 surco (furrow) = 3 naranjas. 

1 naranja (orange) = 8 reales or limones. 

1 real (bit) or lim67i (lemon) = 2 dedos. 

1 dedo (finger) = 9 pajas (straws) . 

According to the old ordinances of lands and waters established in 
Spanish times, the huey of water was as much as would flow through 
an aperture 1 vara (0.838 meter) square, no head or pressure being 
mentioned. By a law of the Mexican Republic of August 2, 1863, 
1 surco was made equal to 6i liters per second for rural measures, 
and the paja was made equal to 0.45 liters per minute for town measure- 
ments. This distinction was intended to make the surco a unit for 
irrigation, while the paja was made the unit for distributing water to 
houses, etc., in towns. 



MEXICO. ^^^ 

CUBIC MEASURES. 

Cubic meter. Cubic yard. 

, ... = 0.588480 = 0.769734 

^f V = 0.021795 = 0.769484 

1^^^^^^^^ _ 0009195 = 0.324634 

IcnUcpalmo - O.uuyiyo 

DRY MEASURES. 

Liters. Bushels. 

1 carga = 2 fanegas =181. 629775 ^ 5. 154357 

1 fanega = 12 almudes =90. 814888 =- 2. 5J^a78 

i.-ii — 7 567907 = 0.859109 

1 abnud = 4 cuartillos - 7. 56790/ ^^^ ^^^^^^ 

1 cuartillo (quart) = 1- 891977 = 1- 718122 

OIL MEASURE. 

Liter U. S. liquid quart. 

IcuaHiUo.. = 0.506162 = 0.534870 

WINE MEASURE. 

Liter 1^^- S. liquid quart. 

leuartUlo = 0.456264 = 0.482140 

COMMERCIAL WEIGHTS. 

Kilogrammes. V. S. pounds avoirdupois. 

1 quintal = 4 arrobas =46. 024634 =101 444 ^ 

1 arroba = 25 Ubras =11- 506159 = 25. 361 

1 libra (pound) = 16 onzas = 0. 460246 = 1- 01444 

±viu,K^u^t, , Ounces avoirdupois. 

1 onza (ounce) = 16 adarmes ....= 0. 028765 = l- 0148 

lad«™e(dram) = 36granos.... - 0.001798 = 0.06343 

l^rano(grain) = 0.0000499 = 0.77160 

In commerce there was used the following relation between the kilo- 
gramme and the pound {librd) different from the ratio as fixed by 
Government, viz: 

1 kilogramme.... =2. 1733 pounds (^ifem..). 

There is also a weight called carga, used in commerce, in freighting, 
and in mining: 

1 carga = 12 arrobas = 300 pounds = 138. 073902 kilogrammes = 304.332 

United States pounds avoirdupois. 

PRECIOUS METAL WEIGHTS. 

Kilogramme. Ounces avoirdupois. 

Xraarco = %onza, =0.230123 =8.1184 

Xonza = %ocM.a. ---- =0.028765 =1-0148 

1 ochava (eighth) = 6 tommes =0. 003596 ^^'^^^l 

ltomin = 12granos - =0.000599 " =9.25920 

igrano =0.0000499 =0.77160 



344 



MEXICO. 



The following table shows the coins issued by the Mexican mints: 



Deuomination. 



Fine- 


Value in 


ness. 


pesos. 


S75 


■20. 00 


875 


10.00 


875 


5.00 


875 


2.50 


875 


1.00 


902 


1.00 


902 


.50 


902 


.25 


902 


.10 



Weight in- 



Grams. 



Troy 
ounces. 



Diameter in- 



Milli- 
meters. 



Inches. 



Gold coins: rt 

Double hidalgo 

Hidalgo 

Medio lli(llll^'■(l . 
Cunrto hi(iiilKi>. 
D^'Cinii) hidalgo 

Silver coins: a 

Peso 

50 centavos 

25 centavos 

10 centavos 



33. 841 

IG. 920 

8.460 

4.230 

1.692 

27. 073 
13. 536 
0.768 
2.707 



1. 0860 
. 5430 
.2715 
. 13575 
.05430 

.866 
.433 
.2165 



1.338.')8 

1.06299 

. 8G614 

. 70866 

. 59055 

1.45669 

1.18110 

. 98425 

. 66929 



a There were formerly coined in gold the onza=S16 in silver; the media onza=88; the pistola=$4; 
the escudo de oro=S2; and the escudito de oro=$l. In silver, the real=$0.12i; medio real=|0.06^. 

CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE. 

Below is a list of the chambers of commerce in the United Mexican 
States at the beginning of the year 1899: 



City. 


State. 


City. 


State. 




Guerrero. 

Aguascalientes. 

Tamaulipas. 

Chihuahua. 

Colima. 

Veracruz. 

Chihuahua. 

Durango. 

Baja California. 

Jalisco. 

Coahulla. 

Campeche. 

Guanajuato. 

San LuisPotosi. 

Sinaloa. 

Distrito Federal. 

Michoacan. 

Veracruz. 

Do. 
Oaxaca. 
Veracruz. 




Chiapas. 


Aguascalientes 


Piedad Cavadas 


Ciudad Victoria 


Puebla 


Puebla 


Ciudad Juarez 


Puerto de Matamoros 

Quer6taro . . 


Tamaulipas. 

Quer<§taro. 

Hidalgo. 


Colima 


Cordoba 




Chihuahua 


San Juan Bautista 

San Luis Potosi 


Durango 




EnsenadadeTodos Santos. 
Guadalajara 


San Pedro de Coahulla . . . 


Coahuila. 


Hidalgo del Parral 


Tampico 


Tamaulipas. 
Territorio de Tepic. 


Isla del Carmen 


Tepic 


Leon 


Tlacotalpan 


Matehuala 


Toluca 






Tula de Tamaulipas 

Tulancingo 


Tamaulipas. 


Mexico 


Morelia 


Tezuitldn 


Puebla 








Orizaba 


Veracruz . 


Do 


Oaxaca 


Yucat&n 

















COST OF LABOR. ^ 

Wages paid ( United States currency) in the City of MSxico in 1896. 

[Per day except when otherwise stated.] 

Day laborers ^ $0. 08 

Blacksmiths ^ 63 

Carpenters (ordinary) , 62 

Carpenters (foremen) 1. 27 

Printers : 

Pressmen 

Job printers 

Compositors 

^ From special consular report, 1896, Vol. XII, Part I, p. 117. These averages hold 
good at present with slight variations due to the necessities of the moment. 

■^ The wages of laborers range from 25 to 67 cents per day; wages of blacksmiths 
range from 75 cents to $1.50 per day. 



to $0. 34 


to 


.76 


to 


.76 


to 


2.25 




.76 




.62 




.72 



MEXICO. 345 

Engravers |2. 25 to $5. 50 

Masons 57 to .76 

Bricklayers 51 to .76 

Ironworkers 1-02 to 1.28 

Private coachmen per month. . 7. 65 to 12. 25 

PubUc coachmen do 5. 50 

Policemen do. . . . 15. 30 to 25. 50 

Wagon drivers -62 

Butchers -76 

Shoemakers -62 

Laborers in factories 31 to .51 

Skilled mechanics 2. 25 

Plumbers 1.02 to 1.27 

Miners ^ 31 to .56 

Skilled miners 51 to .71 

Furnace men, smelters 51 to .76 

Section men on railroads 26 to .31 

Section foremen 51 to .76 

Tailors: 

Repair 51 to .63 

Coat makers per coat. . 2. 55 to 6. 10 

Vest makers per vest.. .65 to .82 

Pants makers per pair. . . 90 to 1 . 28 

Harness and saddle makers 26 to 1. 02 

Wages per day paid ( United States currency) in the Republic of Mexico in 1896. 

Carpenters fO.38 to $0. 63 

Carpenters (foremen) 89 to 1. 53 

Masons 38 to .63 

Masons (foremen) 89 to 1. 53 

Painters 38 to .51 

Painters (foremen) 51 to 1. 02 

Miners: 

Ordinary .31 to .76 

Skilled 89 to .91 

Hatters 38 to .51 

Hatters, skilled 76 to 1.27 

Shoemakers 89 to 1. 27 

Shoemakers (ordinary) 38 to .89 

Blacksmiths (mines) 76 to 1. 53 

Carpenters ( mines) 76 to 1. 53 

Machinists 1. 53 to 2. 04 

Head miners 1.02 to 1.27 

Watchmen 38 to .51 

Factories: 

Girlsandboys 09 to .18^ 

Men 20J to .51 

Women 09 to .25^ 



346 



MEXICO. 



Prices of imported articles of food in the City of Mionco. a 



Articles. 



Ham per pound . 

Bacon do... 

Bulk meats do. . . 

Butter do. . . 

Cheese do . . . 

Salt, table . do. 

Flour do... 

Sugar do... 

Corn meal do. . . 

Hominy do. . . 

Oatmeal do . . . 

Soda crackers do. . . 

Rolled wheat do. . . 

Dried apples do . . . 

Dried peaches do. . . 

Dried apricots do. . . 

Dried prunes do. . . 

Canned fruits— apples, peaches, pears, etc 2-pound cans, 

Irish potatoes per pound . 




a These are average prices subject to fluctuations according to the necessities of the moment. 
Prices of agricultural and pastoral products exported in 1896. 



Articles. 



Mexican currency. 



United States currency. 



Indigo per pound. 

Sugar, fine do. . . 

Sugar, brown do. . . 

Cacao do. . . 

Tobacco do . . . 

Coffee do . . . 

Flour do . . . 

Beans do... 

Wax every 25 pounds. 

Honey every 100 pounds. 

Henequ6n per ton . 

Fiber and cordage per pound. 

Oil per 25 pounds . 

Rubber per pound . 

Dyewoods per ton. 

Ixtle per 100 pounds. 

Vanilla do . . . 

Lemons per 100. 

Oranges do. . . 

Bananas do. . . 



75 cents to 11.25 

10 to 14 cents 

7 cents 

40 cents 

12, 20, 24, to 28 cents... 

25 to 35 cents 

4 to 6 cents 

6 cents 

16 to 20 cents a pound 

20 cents a pound 

S80, gold 

6 cents 

13 

25 cents 

»35,gold 

»6 

$12 to S16 

20 cents 

$1 to 11.50 

60 cents 



38 to 62 cents. 

5 to 8 cents. 

3^ cents. 

21 cents. 

6, 11, 13 to Uh cents. 

13 to 18 cents. 

2 to 3 cents. 

2J cents. 

8 to 13 cents. 

lOi cents. 

3i cents. 
11.53. 
13 cents. 

S2.55. 

$6.10 to $8.16. 

11 cents. 

51 to 77 cents. 

31 cents. 



Retail prices of food products consumed in Mexico and exported in 1896. 



Articles. 


Mexican 
rency 


cur- 


United States 
currency. 


Jerked beef 


per pound.. 


SO. 12 
.12 

.15 
.25 
.40 
.06 

.on 

.07 

.25 
.08 
.08 
.04 
.35 
.03 
.08 
.20 
.60 

1.50 
1.50 


to $0.20 
to .25 

.06 
to .25 
to .45 
to .55 
to .10 
to .04 
to .14 

.50 
to .55 
to .15 
to .16 
to .08 
to .45 
to .07 
to .10 
to .26 
to .76 

.60 

to 2. 00 

1.00 

to 1.80 


$0.07 to 
.07 to 

.08 to 
.13 to 
.20 to 
. 03i to 
. OOJ to 
. 03i to 

.13 to 
.05 to 
.04ito 
.02ito 
.18 to 
.01 J to 
. .04Ho 
.11 to 
.31 to 

.76 to 
.76 to 


80.12 


Fresh beef (cities) 

Fresh beef (ranch) 

Fresh pork 


""!""""!";!'"!!!!!!do!;!! 

.do 


.13 

.03i 

.13 


Salt pork 


do.... 


.23 


Native hams 

Flour 


do.... 

do.... 


.28 
.05i 


Corn 


do.... 


•02J 

.08 

.26 

.28 

.08 

.08 

.04 

.23 

.03A 

.05 


Native beans 

Native butter 

Native cheese 

Native soap (laundry) 

Native sugar ^white) 

Native sugar (brown) 

Coffee (raw ) 

Irish potatoes 

Rice 


do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 


Lard 


do 


.13 


Kerosene oil 


per gallon . . 


.38 


Tea (common) 

Tea (good and choice) 

Molasses (ordinary) 

Wheat: 

Per bushel 


per pound.. 

do 

per gallon . . 


.26 

1.02 

.57 

.91 









MEXICO. 

Prices of products consumed in the coxmtry. 



347 



Wheat per pound. 

Cotton do... 

Wool (choice) ao- • - 

Butter: 

Ordinary do. . . 

Choice oo- - - 

Beans .do. . . 

Eggs per dozen. 

Lard '.'.'.'.'.".'. V.V.V.V per pound. 

Rice do. . . 

Cheese do. . . 

Chick pease a'" 

Soap, common -^ do. . . 

Barley do. . . 

Pepper do. . . 

Sulphur do. . . 

Grapes do. . . 



Beef: 



On ranch do. 

Good, in cities. . : do. 

Best, in cities do. 

In City of Mexico, good do. 



Mexican 


cur- 


United States 


rency 




currency. 


|0. 02 to $0. 04 


$0.01 to 10. 02^ 


.13 to 


.18 


. 06i to 


.09 




.60 




.31 




.50 




.26 




.75 




.38 




.06 




.03 




.25 




.13 


.16 to 


.24 


.08 to 


.12 


.06 to 


.08 


.03 to 


.04 




.50 




.26 




.03 




.OU 




.08 




.041 




.OU 




.00* 




.16 




.08i 


.07 to 


.10 


. 03i to 


.05i 


.10 to 


.15 


.05 to 


.08 




.06 




.03 




.12 




.06 




.25 




.13 




.16 




.08 



Prices of cloths, wearing apparel, etc., imported. 

Ginghams per 33 inches. . 

Shirting - do 

Sheeting - do 

Common cassimeres - per yard. . 

Good cassimeres do 

Flannels - - - - - per 33 inches. . 

Woolen shirts. each. . 

Douglas shoes per pair. . 

Heavy brogans, men's do 

Men's calf shoes do 

Men's boots do 

Men's overalls each. . 

Men's jean coats - do 

Ordinary wool hats do 

Good wool hats do 

Fine wool hats do 

These prices are for the border towns and in the Free Zone, where 
tariff duties are light. 



0. 15 to 


$0.20 


.15 to 


.20 


.15 to 


.25 




1.50 




6.00 


.75 to 


1.25 


2. 00 to 


3.50 


4. 50 to 


11.00 


1. 50 to 


2.50 


3. 50 to 


4.50 


3. 00 to 


5.00 


1. 20 to 


1.50 


2. 25 to 


3.50 


1. 00 to 


1.50 


4. 00 to 


5.00 


8. 00 to 


10.00 



TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS. 

BELGIUM. 

Convention for the extradition of criminals, May 24, 1892. 
Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, June 7, 1895. 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, March 29, 1890. 

ECUADOR. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1893. 



348 MEXICO. 



Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, November 27, 1886. 
Parcels post convention, December 10, 1891. 
Kegulations governing the same, January 22, 1892. 



Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, December 5, 1882. 

Parcels post convention. May 24, 1892. 

Amendment to paragraph 1 , article 4, of said convention, November 21, 1894. 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

Preliminary to the resumption of diplomatic relations, August 6, 1884. 
Treaty for the extradition of criminals, September 7, 1886. 
Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, November 27, 1888. 
Parcels post convention, February 15, 1889. 
Regulations governing same, March 12, 1890. 

Regulations governing fiscal officers in connection with postal authorities, in fulfil- 
ment of the above-mentioned postal treaty, March 12, 1890. 
Treaty of boundaries between Yucatan and Belize (British Honduras) , July 8, 1893. 

GUATEMALA. 

Preliminary convention on boundaries, December 7, 1877. 

Act extending the period fixed in article 8 of said convention, May 3, 1879. 

Convention for the prorogation of the periods named in articles 7 and 8 of said 

convention, March 3, 1879. 
Treaty of boundaries, September 27, 1882. 
Convention extending for one year the period fixed by the above-mentioned treaty, 

June 8, 1885. 
Convention extending the period fixed for the conclusion of the work of the joint 

commission on boundaries, October 6, 1886. 
Convention for the same purpose, October 20, 1890. 
Claims convention, January 26, 1888. 
Convention extending the period for the conclusion of the work of the boundary 

commission, October 22, 1888. 
Convention for the same purpose, October 20, 1890. 
Claims convention, December 22, 1891. 
Convention for the extradition of criminals. May 19, 1894. 
Convention on boundaries, July 10, 1894. 
Adjustment of the difficulties arising from the exercise of acts of >vereignty in 

Mexican territory, April 1, 1895. 
Convention extending the period within which the boundary line must be drawn, 

March 16, 1896. 
Convention for the same purpose, October 6, 1897. 



Convention to determine the nationality of Mexicans born in Italy and Italians 

born in Mexico, August 20, 1888. 
Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1893. 

JAPAN. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1893. 



MEXICO. 349 

SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, July 29, 1885. 

UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 

Treaty of limits, concluded January 12, 1828, proclaimed April 5, 1832. 

Treaty of limits, concluded April 5, 1831, proclaimed April 5, 1832. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, concluded April 5, 1831, proclaimed April 

5, 1832. 
Treaty of limits, concluded April 3, 1835, proclaimed April 21, 1836. 
Claims convention, concluded April 11, 1839, proclaimed April 8, 1840. 
Claims convention, concluded January 30, 1843, proclaimed March 31, 1843. 
Treaty of peace, friendship, limits, and settlement (treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo), 

concluded February 2, 1848, proclaimed July 4, 1848. 
Treaty of boundary, cession of territory, transit of Isthmus of Tehuantepec, etc. 

(Gadsden treaty), concluded December 30, 1853, proclaimed June 30, 1854. 
Extradition treaty, concluded December 11, 1861, proclaimed June 30, 1862. 
Claims convention, concluded July 4, 1868, proclaimed February 1, 1869. 
Naturalization convention, concluded July 10, 1868, proclaimed February 1, 1869. 
Claims convention, concluded April 19, 1871, proclaimed February 8, 1872. 
Claims convention, concluded November 27, 1872, proclaimed July 24, 1873. 
Claims convention, concluded November 20, 1874, proclaimed January 28, 1875. 
Claims convention, concluded April 29, 1876, proclaimed June 29, 1876. 
Boundary convention, concluded July 29, 1882, proclaimed March 5, 1883. 
Commercial reciprocity convention, concluded January 20, 1883, proclaimed June 2, 

1884. 
Boundary convention, Rio Grande and Rio Colorado, concluded November 12, 1884, 

proclaimed September 14, 1886. 
Reciprocity convention, concluded February 25, 1885, proclaimed May 4, 1886. 
Boundary convention, concluded December 5, 1885, proclaimed June 28, 1887. 
Reciprocity convention, concluded May 14, 1886, proclaimed February 1, 1887. 
Boundary convention, concluded February 18, 1889, proclaimed October 14, 1889. 
Boundary convention, concluded March 1, 1889, proclaimed December 26, 1890. 
Boundary convention, concluded August 24, 1894, proclaimed October 18, 1894. 
Boundary convention, concluded October 1, 1895, proclaimed December 21, 1895. 
Boundary convention, concluded November 6, 1896, proclaimed December 23, 1896. 
Boundary convention, concluded October 29, 1897, proclaimed December 21, 1897. 
Boundary convention, concluded December 2, 1898, proclaimed February 3, 1899. 



CHAPTER XX. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY. 

The following- brief list of works on Mexico is given here for the 
benefit of those who desire to have a better knowledge of the country, 
and merely as an index to the literature on the subject: 

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico. Mexico. 

Anuario Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana. Ministerio de Fomento, Mexico. 

Boletin de Agricultura, Mineria e Industrias. Mexico. 

Boletin Comercial de la Secretaria de Hacienda. Mexico. 

Boletin Demogrdfico. Ministerio de Fomento, Mexico. 

Boletfn de Estadistica Fiscal. Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico, Mexico. 

Boletin Oficial de la Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores. Mexico. 

Censo General de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (1895). Ministerio de Fomento, 

Mexico. 
Commercial Relations of the United States. Department of State, Washington. 
Diario Oficial. Organo del Supremo Gobierno, Mexico. 

Estadistica General de la Republica Mexicana. Ministerio de Fomento, Mexico. 
Guia Postal de la Republica Mexicana. Mexico. 
Informes y Mensajes del Ciudadano General Porfirio Diaz, Presidente de los Estados 

Unidos Mexicanos. Mexico. 
Iniciativas de Presupuestos. Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico. Mexico. 
Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de Comunicaciones y Obras Piiblicas. Mexico. 
Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico. Mexico. 
Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de Fomento, Colonizacion e Industrias. 

Mexico. 
Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de la Gobernacion. Mexico. 
Informes y Memorias del Ministerio de Guerra y Marina. Mexico. 
Publications of the Bureau of Statistics. Treasury Department, Washington. 
United States Consular Reports. Department of State, Washington. 

UNOFFICIAL WORKS. 

Abbot, Gorhnm D. Mexico and the United States. New York, 1869. 

Aguilera {Jose G.) y Ordonez {Ezequiel). Datos para la Geologia de M6xico. 1893. 

Araluce, Ramon de S. N. (editor) . Guia General de la Republica Mexicana. Mexico, 
1899. 

Barrett, Robert S. Standard Guide to the City of Mexico and Vicinity. Mexico, 
1900. 

Baedeker, Carl (editor). The United States, with an Excursion into Mexico. Leip- 
zig, 1899. 

Bancroft, JTuber Howe. A Popular History of the Mexican People. London, 1887. 

Resources and Development of Mexico. San Francisco, 1893. 

Bedolliere, Emile G. de la. Histoire de la Guerre du Mexique. Paris, 1866. 
350 



MEXICO. 351 

Berristain y Souza, Jose Mariano. Biblioteca Hispano-Americana Setentional. 

Mexico, 1883. 
Bianconi, F. Le Mexique. Paris, 1899. 
BrocMehurst, T. U. Mexico To-day. London, 1883. 
Buissihre, Th. de. L' Empire Mexicain, etc. Paris, 1863. 
Busto, Emiliano. La Administracion Piiblica en Mexico. Paris, 1889. 
Castonnet des Fosses, H. Les Origines du Peuple Mexicain. Angers, 1897. 
Castro, Lorenzo. The Kepublic of Mexico in 1882. New York, 1882. 
Charnay, D. Ancient Cities of the New World. London. 
Chevalier, Michel— Le Mexique Ancien et Moderne. Paris, 1886. 
Commercial Directory of the American Republics, Vol. II, Mexico. Bureau of the 

American Republics, Washington, 1898. 
Coney, A. K., and Godoy, JosS F. Legal and Mercantile Handbook of Mexico. 

Chicago, 1892. 
Conkling, Howard. Mexico and the Mexicans. New York, 1883. 
Dahlgreen, Chas. B. Minas Historicas de la Repiiblica Mexicana, 1887. 
Dudos Salinas, Adolfo.. The Riches of Mexico and its Institutions. St. Louis, Mo., 

1893. 
Egloffstein, Baron F. W. Contributions to the Geology and Physical Geography of 

Mexico. New York, 1864. 
Garcia. Oubas, Antonio. Mexico, its Trade, Industries, and Resources, translated by 

William Thompson. Mexico, 1893. 

Etude Geographique, Statistique, Descriptive et Historique des Etats-Unis 

Mexicains. Mexico, 1889. 

Gloner, Prosper. Les Finances des Etats-Unis Mexicains. Bruxelles, 1895. 
Hamilton, Leonidas. Border States of Mexico. Chicago, 1882. 
Hesse Wartegg, Ernst von. Mexico, Land und Leute. Vienna, 1890. 
Kessler, H. Prof. — ^Notizen iiber Mexico. Berlin, 1898. 
Kozhevar, E. — Report on the Republic of Mexico. London, 1886. 
Lemcke, Heinrich. — Mexico das Land und seine Leute. Berlin, 1900. 
Lummis, Chas. F. — -The Awakening of a Nation. New York, 1898. 
Memorias y Revista de la Sociedad Cientifica ' 'Antonio Alzate. ' ' Mexico. 
Monthly Bulletin of the Bureau of American Republics. Washington. 
Noll, Arthur Hoimrd. — A Short History of Mexico. Chicago, 1890. 
Oher, F. ^.—Travels in Mexico. Boston, 1884. 
Orozco y Berra, Manuel. — Apuntes para la Geografia en Mexico. Mexico, 1881. 

Materiales para una Cartografia Mexicana. Mexico, 1871. 

Prescott, W. H. — History of the Conquest of Mexico. London. 

Ramirez, Santiago. — Noticia Historica de la Riqueza Minera de Mexico. Mexico, 



Ratzel, Fried. — Aus Mexico Reises Kizzen aus den Jahren, 1874-75. Breslau, 1878. 
Riva Palacio, Vicente. — Mexico a Traves de los Siglos. Mexico, 1887-1889. 
Romero, Matias. — Geographical and Statistical Notes on Mexico. New York, 1898. 

La Conferencia Internacional Americana. Mexico, 1890. 

Mexico and the United States. New York, 1898. 

Routier,G. — Le Mexique de nos Jours. Paris, 1895. 
Schmitz, Otto. — Die Finanzen Mexikos. Leipzig, 1894. 

Schroeder, Seaton. — The Fall of Maximilian's Empire as seen from a United States gun- 
boat. New York, 1887. 

Scobel, A. — Die Verkcheswege Mexico und ihre wirtschaftliche Bedeutung. (In 
Deutche Geographische Blatter, Band X, Heft I.) Bremen, 1887. 

Seler, E. — Mexico and Guatemala. Berlin, 1896. 

Sobato, Jose G. — Estudio sobre las aguas medicinales de la Repiiblica. Mexico, 1884. 

Starr, Frederick. — Indians of Southern Mexico. Chicago, 1899. 

Statesman's Yearbook. London. 



352 MEXICO. 

Valentini, Philipp J. J. — The Mexican Calendar Stone (compiled and arranged from 

the German by S. Salisbury, jr.). Worcester, 1879. 
Zayas Enriquez, Rafael de. — Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, Sus condiciones de paz, 

etc. Mexico, 1893. 

Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, Sus progresos en veinte aiios, 1877-1897. 

New York. (No date; about 1899.) 

Les Etats XJnis Mexicains — leur ressources naturelles, leur progres, leur sitation 

actuelle. Mexico, 1899. 

ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. 

LIST OF AUTHORITIES SINCE 1876. 
Prepared by Prof. O. T. Mason, U. S. National Museum. 

Anales del Museo Michoacano, Morelia, 1888-1890. Redactor, N. Leon. 

Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico. Mexico, 1877-1897. 

Antigiiedades Mexicanas. Mexico, 1892, La Junta Colombiana de Mexico (por 

Alfredo Chavero). Text and plates in folio. 
Bancroft, H. H.— The Native Races of the Pacific States. New York, 1874-1876. 

5 vols. (Vol. 1, 1874; Vol. II, 1875; Vol. Ill, 1875; Vol. IV, 1875; Vol. V, 1876.) 
Bandelier, A. F. — The art of war of the ancient Mexicans. 10th An. Rep. Peabody 

Museum, Cambridge, 1877, pp. 95-161. 

Distribution and tenure of lands, etc., among the ancient Americans. 11th An. 

Rep. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1878, pp. 385-448. 

On the social organization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans. 

12th An. Rep. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1880, pp. 559-699. 

Report on an archaeological tour in Mexico, 1881. Papers Archseol. Inst, of 

America, Am. Series, II. 

Investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern United States. Archfeol. 

Inst, of America, Am. Series, III, Cambridge, 1890, 319 pp., ill., bibliographic 
notes. 

Bastian, A. — Die Culturlander des alten Amerika. Berlin, 1888, III vols. 

Batres, Leopoldo — Cuadro arqueologico y etnogrdfico de la Repiiblica Mexicana. 

Mexico, n. d. Also, Teotihuacan, Mexico, 1889, colored plates and plans; and 

IV Tlalpilli; Ciclo de 13 afios, Mexico, 1888, water colors. 
Belmar, Francisco — Ligero estudio sobre la lengua Mazateca. Oaxaca, 1892. 
Blake, W. W. — -Catalogue of the Historical and Archseological Collections of the 

National Museum of Mexico. Mexico, 1884, 119 pp. Also description of Father 

Fischer's collection, Chicago, 1886, 4 pp., and The Antiquities of Mexico, New 

York, 1891, 92 pp. 
Boban, E. — Documents pour servir a 1' histoire du Mexique. Paris, 1891. 2 vols. and. 

atlas. 
Boletin de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica. 1 ^poca, 12 vols., 1850- 

1866; 2 epoca, 4 vols. 1869-1872; 3 epoca, 1873-1894. 
Bowditch, Charles P. — The Lords of the night and the Tonalamatl of the Codex 

Borbonicus. Am. Anthropologist, n. s.,II, p. 145-154. 
Brinton, Daniel G. — The American Race. New York, 1891, Hodges, 392 pp. 12°. 

[Bibliography of author's writings]. 

Ancient phonetic alphabets of Yucatan. New York, 1870. 

A primer of Maya hieroglyphics. Boston, 1895, Ginn, 152 pp. 8°. 

Buschmann, J. C. — Spuren der Aztekischen Sprache im nordlichen und hoherem 

Norden, 1854, Trans. Roy. Prussian Acad., 1859, 819 pp. 
Cat^logo de la Seccion de Mexico en la Esposicion Historico- Americana de Madrid. 

Madrid, 1893. 
Charencey, Hyacinthe de, Recherches sur le Codex Troans. Paris, 1876, E. Leroux. 

16 p. 8°. 



MEXICO. 353 

Charencey, Hyacinthe de.— Melanges de philologie et de paleographie americaines. 
Paris, 1883, Leroux. 195 pp. 8°. 

Chrestomathie Maya d'apres la Chronique de Ohac-Xulub-Chen. Paris, 1892, 

Klinesieek-Chavers, Alfredo— Antigiiedades Mexicanas. Mexico, 1892, Junta 
Colombiana. 4° and atlas. Also Mexico i traves de los siglos. Mexico, 1886. 
Vol. I, 928 pp. ; many figures. 

Oronau, Rudolf —America. Leipzig, 1892. 2 vols. 

Chamay, Desir6— The Ancient Cities of the New World. [Translation. ] New York, 

1887, 514 pp., illustrated. (French edition, Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau 

Monde. Paris, 1885.) 
Estrada, Aureliano— Cerro de Quiengola, in Tehuantepec Mem. Soc. Sclent. Antonio 

Alzate, Mex., 1892. 
Fewkes, J. W. — The god " D " in the Codex Cortesianus. Am. Anthropologist, July, 

1895. 

Pueblo ruins near Winslow, Arizona. Smithsonian Eeport, 1896, Wash., 1898, 

517-838. pi. xxvii-liii. 

Forstemann, E.— Die Zeitperioden der Mayas. Globus, Ixiii, Braunschweig, 1893. 

Die Maya-Handschfift der Konigl. Oeffentl. Bibliothek zu Dresden, 74 Chro- 

moliths, Leipzig, 1880; 2d ed Dresden, 1891. 

Erlauterungen zur Maya-Handschrift der Koniglichen Oeffentlichen Biblio- 
thek zu Dresden. Dresden, 1886. 

Zur Maya-Chronologie. Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., Leipzig, 1891, Jahrgang, 23. 

Zur Entzifferung der Maya-Handschriften, Dresden, parts 1-vii, different dates, 

1891-1898. 

Neue Maya-Forschungen. Globus, Braunschweig, 1896, 37-39. 

Die Kreuzenschrift von Palenque. Globus, Braunschweig, 1897. 

Gatschet, Albert S., Der Yuma-Sprachstamm. Zeitschr f. Ethnol., Berlin, 1877, vol. 

ix, pp. 341-350; 365^18. 

Zwolf Sprachen aus Sudwesten Nordamerikas, Weimar, 1876, 150 pp. 8°. 

[Author's bibliography in Filling's Bibliography, Washington, 1885, Gov't 
print.] 

Classification of Western Indian dialects, etc.. Rep. U. S. Geog. Survey W. of 

100th meridian, by G. M. Wheeler, Vol. VII, Washington, 1879, pp. 399-485. 
[Makes Piman the northern branch of the Nahuatlan family.] 

Garcia, Cubas Antonio— The Republic of Mexico, 1876. Mexico, 1876, La Ensenanza, 
130 pp. 8°. [With linguistic map.] 

Cuadro geogrdfico, etc., de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Mexico, 1884, xxxi, 

474 pp. 

Gracida, Martinez — Catdlogo de los nombres de las poblaciones de Oaxaca. Bol. Soc. 

de Geografia, Mex., 1889, Vol. I. 
Goodman, J. T. — Archaic Maya inscriptions. Biologia Centralia-Americana (archte- 

ology), appendix, pp. 1-xii, 1-150. 
Gunckel, Lewis W. — The study of American hieroglyphics. Am. Antiquarian, 

1897, xix, 40 pages. 

The direction in which Mayan inscriptions should be read. Am. 

Anthropologist, Washington, 1897, x, 146-162. 

Analysis of the deities of Mayan inscriptions. Am. Anthropologist, Wash- 
ington, 1897, X, 397-412. 

The symbol of the hand. Am. Antiquarian, Good Hope, 111., 1897, 260-271. 

Hamy, E. T. — Mission Scientifique au Mexique et dans I'Amerique Centrale, Anthro- 

pologie du Mexique. Paris, 1884, Imprim. Nationale. 4°. 
Herrera, Alfonso L., y Ricardo, E. Cicero.— Catdlogo de la coleccion de antropologia 
del Museo Nacional. No. 4. Mexico, 1895, Impr. del Mus, Nac. 164 pp. [Lists 
of families and tribes. ] 

65lA 23 



354 MEXICO. 

Holden, Edwin S. — Studies in Central American picture writing. First An. Rep; 

Bur. Ethnol., Washington, 1889. 
Holmes, Wm. H. — Eccentric figures [engraved shells and coppers] from Southern 

mounds. Science, 1884, iii, 436 [note by Thomas, id., 779-785]. 

Archseological studies among the ancient cities of Mexico. Chicago, Pt. I, 

1895; Pt. II, 1897, 338 pp. , 57 pi. , 12 figs. , 8°. [This work is an excellent text-book 
for Mexican archaeology.] 

Icazbalceta, J. G. — Nueva Coleccion de documentos para la historia de Mexico. Mex- 
ico, Vol. I, 1886; II, 1889; III, 1891; IV and V, 2 vols., 1892. 

Keane, A. H. — Ethnography and philology of America. Stanford's compendium. Cen- 
tral America, West Indies, and South America. London, 1878, pp. 443-561. 

Kohler, Professor. — Das Recht der Azteken. Stuttgart, 1892. 

Lumholtz, Carl. — The Huichol Indians of Mexico. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New 
York, 1898, vol. 4, pp. 1-14, 2 pL, 8°. 

Leon, Nicolas (editor). — Anales del Museo Michoacano, Morelia, 1888-1890. 

Loubat, Due de. — Codex 3773; Codex 3778 (the Del Rios), Library of the Vatican; 
Codex Borgia, Library of the Propaganda, Rome; Codex Bologna, Scientific 
Institute, Bologna; Telleriano Remensis, and the Tonalamatl Aubin, National 
Library, Paris. All reproduced in colors under the patronage of Due de Loul^at. 

Maler, Theobert. — Neue Entdeckung von Ruinen-Stadten in Mittel-America. Globus, 
Braunschweig, Globus, 1896, Ixx, 149-150. See also vol. Ixviii, 245 and 277. 

Marimon, Sebastian. — Relacion de la villa de Valladolid de Yucatdn. Found in the 
archives of the Indies and published by him. Madrid, 1884, Fortadnet. 

Maudslay, A. P. — Biologia Centrali-Americana. Archseology, London, 1897, R. H. 
Porter. [A rich contribution to Mexican archaeology.] Also Proc. Roy. Geog. 
Soc, Lond., vol. viii, 1886. 

Mercer, Henry C. — The hill caves of Yucatan. Philadelphia, 1896. 

Cave hunting in Yucatan. Technological Quarterly, Boston, 1897, 20 pp. , 6 figs. 

Morgan, Lewis H. — Houses and house life of the American aborigines. Contribu- 
tions to N. A. Ethnology, Washington, 1881, Vol. Ill, 282 p., 56 figs. 

Nuttall, Zelia. — On ancient Mexican shields. Leiden, 1892, Trap, 20 pp., 3 pi. (From 
Internat. Archv. f. Ethnog., V.) 

Atlatl, or spear-thrower of the ancient Mexicans. Cambridge, Mass., 1891, 

36 pp. 

On the ancient Mexican Calendar System, Stockholm, 1894. 

Oppel, A. — Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. Globus, Braunschwieg, 1896, 4-13, 
75 figs. 

Payne, Edward John. — History of the New World, called America. Oxford, Claren- 
don Press, Vol. I, 1892; Vol. II, 1899. [A valuable study in Mexican history.] 

Penafiel, Antonio. — Nombres geogr^ficos de Mexico. Mexico, 1885. Govt, print. 262 
pp. 4°. 

Mapas. — Tlotzin, Quinatzin, and Tepechpan, 3 maps from the Aubin collection, 

1889. 

Codice Fernandez Leal. Mexico. 24 colored plates. 

Monumentos del arte mexicano antiguo. Ornamentacion, mitologia, tributos 

y monumentos. Berlin, 1890, A. Asher & Co. 1 vol. of text in Spanish, French, 
and English; 2 vols, plates, folio. [A work of great merit.] 

Pigorini, Luigi.^Gli antichi oggetto messicani incrostati di mosaico. Reale Acad, dei 

Lincei. Rome, 1885. Also Globus, Ixx, pp. 8. 
Pilling, James C. — Proof sheets of a bibliography of the languages of the North 

American Indians. Washington, 1885. Bureau of Ethnology, 1135 pp. 
Portillo, Esteban. — Apuntes para la historia antigua de Coahuila y Texas. Saltillo, 

1886, 8°. ' ' . ' 



MEXICO. 355 

Powell, J. W. — Indian linguistic families north of Mexico; 7th An. Rep. Bur. Am. 

Ethnol., Washington, 1891, Govt, print. [Gives linguistic families of Mexican 

northern tribes.] 
Eada y Delgado, Juan de Dios de la. — Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan. [Published 

by Brasseur, 1860 and 1864.] Translation of Rosny essay into Spanish, Madrid, 

1884. 
Ran, Charles. — The Palenque tablet in the U. S. National Museum, Washington, 

1879. 2 pi., 17 figs., 4°. [Smithsonian Contributions, 331.] 
Reyes, Jose M. — Breve resena hist6rica, etc. Boletin Sociedad de Geog., etc., Mex., 

1881, vol. V, 385-491, 2 plans, 5 pi. 
Reyes, Vicente. — Las ruinas de Tetzcutzinco. Bol. Sociedad de Geografia, etc., Mex., 

1888, vol. i, 129-150. 
Rosny, Leon de. — Codex Cortesianus. Paris, 1883, Maison neuve. 26 + 49 pp., 42 

pi., 4°. 
Rovirosa, J. N.— Diccionario etimologico Tabasqueno-Ohiapaneco. Bol. Soc. de 

Geografia, etc., Mex., 1889, vol. i. 

Ensayo bistorico sobre el Rio Grijalva. Mexico, 1897. [Identifies tribes of 

Cortez.] 

Sapper, Carl. — Das nordliche Mittel-Amerika; nebst einem Ausflug nach den Hoch- 

land von Anahuac. Braunschweig, 1897. Vieweg, 436 pp. 
Saville, Marshall H. — Ceremonial year of the Maya Codex Cortesianus. Proc. 

A. A. A. S., Salem, Mass., 1895, vol. 43. 

A comparative study of the graven glyphs of Copan and Quirigua. Proc. Am. 

Assoc, for the advancement of science. 1895. 

The temple of Tepoztlan. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, Nov., 1896. 

Schellhas, P. — Die Gottergestalten der Maya-Handschriften. Ztchr. f. Ethnol. , Berlin, 

1892, vol. 24, p. 101-121. Also Dresden, 1897, Berthng, 34 pp. 
Seler, Edward K. — Das konjugationssystem der Maya-Sprachen. Leipzig, 1887. 

Das Tonalamatl der Aubinschen Sammlung. Comptes Rendus, Congres Inter- 
national des Amerikanistes, 7th session, Berlin, 1888, 217 pp., 172 figs., 8°. 

Der Character der aztekischen und Maya-Handschriften. Zeitschrift fiir 

Ethnologie, Berhn, 1888, 97 pp. , 76 figs. , 3 pi. , 8°. [The files of this journal must 
be consulted for many papers by this author. ] 

Altmexikanische Studien, Berlin. Veroffentlichen des Koniglichen Museum 

furVolkskunde, 1890, Band I, Hefte4,1890; Band VI, Heft 2-4, 1899. 

Die mexikanischen Bilderhandschriften Alexander von Humboldt's in der 

Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin. Berlin, 1893. 

The wall paintings of Mitla, Berlin, 1895, Asher folio, 12 pi. 

Die Venus-Periode in den Bilderschriften der Codex-Borgia-Gruppe. Ztschr. 

f. Ethnol., xxx, 1898, 346-383 pp. 

Altmexikanische Knochenrasseln. Globus, Braunschweig, 1898, Ixxvi, pp. 

85-93. 

Simeon, Remi. — Dictionnaire de la Langue Nahuatl ou Mexicaine. Paris, 1885, 785 

pp., 4». 
Molina Solis, Juan Francisco. Historia del descubrimiento y conquista de Yucatan, 

Merida, 1896. 911 pp. 
Starr, Frederick. — Notes on Mexican Archaeology. Chicago, 1894. 16 p. 

Maya writing. Science, 1895, pp. 326. 

A shell gorget from Mexico. Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sc, Davenport 

1896. Vol. VI, 173-178. 

Ethnographic notes on southern Mexico. Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sc, 

Davenport, Iowa. Vol. VI. 

■ Pottery objects from Lake Chapala, Mex. Chicago, 1897, University press. 

Bull, ii, Anthrop, 



356 MEXICO. 

Starr, Frederick. — Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco or Codice Campos. Chicago, 1898. Dept. 
of Anthropology, Bulletin III. 

Strebel, Hermann. — Alt-Mexico. Hamburg, 1885. 143 pp.; plates. Ruinen von 
Comprallan im Staate Vera Cruz, Hamburg, 1884; Archaeol. and Ethnol. Mittheil. 
aus Mexico, Hamburg, 1899. 10 pp., 2 plates. 

Thomas, Cyrus. — A study of the Manuscript Troano. Cout. to N. A. Ethnology, Wash- 
ington, 1882. Vol.5. [Introduction by Brinton.] 

Review of Codex Cortesianus, Science. New York, 1884. Vol. 3, 458. 

Maya day symbols. 16th An. Rep. Bur. Am. Ethnol., Washington, 1897. 

pp. 199-266; 6 pi. 

Notes on Certain Maya and Mexican Manuscripts. Washington, 1885. 65 

pp., 4 pi., 10 figs. 

The Maya Year. Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of Am. Ethnol. , Washing- 
ton, 1894. Govt, print. 64 p., 1 pi., 8°. 

Thompson, Edward H. — The Cave of Loltun, Yucatan. Mem. Peabody Museum, 
Cambridge, Mass. 1897. Vol. 1, No. 2. 22 p., 8 pi., 20 figs., 4. [The Chul- 
tunes of Labna, id.. No. 3. 

Valentini, Philip J. J. — The Landa Alphabet. Proc. Am. Antiquar. Soc, Worcester, 
Mass., 1880. 35 p. 

The Olmecas and the Tultecas. Proc. Am. Antiquarian Soc. , Worcester, Mass. , 

1882. No. 1, vol. 2. 193-230. 

Analysis of the pictorial text inscribed on two Palenque tablets. Proc. Am. 

Antiquar. Soc, Worcester, Mass., 1895. 24 pp. 

The Toltecs in fable and in history. Ztschr. f . Ethnologie, Berlin, 1896. 

Winsor, Justin. — Narrative and critical history of America. Boston, 1889. Hough- 
ton & Co. Vol. I, p. 133-208, 8°. 

CARTOGRAPHY. ^ 

LIST OF MAPS OF MEXICO FROM 1858 TO 1898. 
By P. Lee Phillips, Chief of Maps and Charts Division, Library of Congress. 

Uricoechea (Ezequiel). — Mapoteca Colombiana. Coleccion de los tftulos de todos 
los mapas, pianos, vistas, etc., relativos d la America Espafiola, Brasil e islas 
adyacentes. xvi, 215 pp. 12". Londres, Triibner & Cia., 1860. 

Note.— Pages 35-53 contain a list of maps of Mexico to 1860. 

L. C. 
Orozco y Berra (Manuel) . Materiales para ima cartografia Mexicana. Edicion de la 
Sociedad de Geografia y Estadistica. xii, 337 pp. 1 1. 8°. Mexico, imprenta 
del gobierno, 1871. L. C. 

1858. 

Atlas geografico, estadistico 6 historico de la republica Mexicana, formado por Anto- 
nio Garcia Cubas. 3 p. 1. 31 maps. 2 pi. 4, 18 pp. + 11. fol. Mexico, J. M. 
Fernandez de Lara, 1888. 



List of maps. 



Carta 1. Carta general reducida. 

2. Sonora. 

3. Chihuahua. 

4. Coahuila. 

5. Nuevo Leon. 

6. Tamaulipas. 

7. San Luis Potosl. 

8. Zacatecas. 



1 The initials L. C. stand for Library of Congress, Washington. 



MEXICO. 357 

Carta 9. Aguascalientes. 

10. Durango. 

11. Sinaloa. 

12. Jalisco. 

13. Guanajuato. 

14. Michoacto. 

15. Quer^taro. 

16. Mexico. 

17. Valle de Mexico. 

18. Puebla. 

19. Veracruz. 

20. Guerrero. 

21. Oaxaca. 

22. Chiapas. 

23. Tabasco. 

24. Yucatan. 

25. Baja California. 

26. Sierra Gorda. 

27. Colima. 

28. Tlaxcala. 

29. Tehuantepec. 

30. Territories de Sierragorda 6 isla del Carmen. 

31. Carta general de la Republica Mexicana. 

Cuadro 1. Cuadro historico-gerogllfico de la peregrinaci6n de las tribus Aztecas. 

2. Cuadro historico-geroglifico de la peregrinaci6n de las tribus Aztecas que poblaron el 
valle de Mexico. 

L. C. 
1858. 

H. Kiepert's karte des nordlichen tropischen America. A new map of tropical 
Am.erica north of the equator, comprising the West Indies, Central America, 
Mexico, New Granada, and Venezuela, col. 38 x 63, fold. obi. 4°. Berlin, D. 
Keimer, 1858. L. C. 

1859. 

Map of the United States and Mexico. Published by Johnson & Browning, under 
the direction of Col. Carlos Butterfield. Dec, 1859. col. fold. 30x36. [New 
York, 1859.] L. C. 

1861. 

Carta general de la repiiblica Mexicana. 10^x16. [In Garcia Cubas (Antonio). 
Compendio de geografia. 16". Mexico, 1861.] L. C. 

1861. 

Memoria para servir a la carta general de la Republica Mexicana. Publicada por 
Antonio Garcia Cubas. 168 pp. 1 1. 1 fold. map. 8°. Mexico, Andrade & 
Escalante, 1861. L. C. 

1861. 

Colton (J. H.). — Col ton's map of the United States, Mexico, the "West Indies, &c., 
1861. col. 30 X 37, fold. 18". [New York, J. H. Colton & co. , 1861. ] L. C. 

1862. 

Carte du Mexique representant le plateau de I'Anahuac et son versant oriental par 
Hi. de Saussure, 1862. 22 x 21. 

[In Soci6t6 de g6ographie de Geneve. M6moires. &•>. Geneve, 1862. v. 3, p. 60.] 

L. C. 



358 MEXICO. 

1862. 
Carte du Mexique, 1 : 5800000, par J. Barthelemi. Paris, 1862, tres gr. in-folio, colorize. 

1862. 
Carte du Mexique, 1: 4900000, par L. Sagansan. 1862, tres gr. in-folio, colorize. 

1862. 

Carta hidrogrdfica del valle de Mexico. Levantada de orden del Ministerio de 
Fomento por los ingenieros Miguel Iglesias, Ramon Almaraz, Mariano Santa- 
Maria y Jose Antonio de la Pena, bajo la direccion Ingeniero Geografo Francisco 
Diaz Covarrubias, antiguos alumnos del Colegio Nacional de Mineria. 1862. 
42^ X 26. Mexico, H. Salazar, 1863. L. C. 

1862. 

Der mexicanische staat Puebla. VoUstiindige Reduction der Original- Aufnahme vom 
Baron Ferdinand von Heldtrich (Officier friiher in k. preuss. dann in mexican. 
d.) publiciert in 4 bl. (Massstab 1:232,500) unt. d. titel: Carta del departamento 
de Puebla levantado de orden del Gobierno Supremo de la Repiiblica Mexicana 
por R. Almazdn, 1855. Imprenta litogrdfica de A. Castillero, Puebla. Redigirt 
V. H. Kiepert. Massstab der reduction 1:500,000. 23Jx23^. 

[In Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin. Zeitschrift. Neue folge. 8". Berlin, D. Reimer, 
1862. V. 13. pi. 5.] 

L. C. 

1862. 

Karte der 3 Staaten M., Puebla und Vera Cruz. ([Style on cover] Karte des 
Kriegsschauplatzes swischen Veracruz und Mexico,) mit dem Stadtplan von M. 
E. Jiiger: Stuttgart, 1862. 

The plan of the City of Mexico is printed on the back of the map. 

British Museum. 
1862. 

Map of Mexico constructed from all available materials and corrected to 1862. By 
H. Kiepert. — H. Kiepert's karte von Mexico, iiberbruck aus desselben karte des 
nordlichen tropischen America in 6 bl. 1856 mit neuen berichtigungen 1862. 
22x27. fold. 8°. Berlin, D. Reimer, 1862. 

L. C. 
1862. 

Nouvelle Carte du Mexique, donnant le Port de la Vera-Cruz, les environs de M., la 
partie Sud-Est des ^^tats-Unis, la mer des Antilles et I'Am^rique Centrale. 
Dressee par A. Vuillemin . . . (Details des Environs de M. et de la Vera-Cruz. 
La Guadeloupe. La Martinique. ) J. Barthelemier: Paris, 1862. 

British Museum. 
1862. 

Plan de Mexico et de ses environs dans un rayon de huit kilometres. Grav6 chez 
Erhard. 16^x11. [In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 6me serie. 8°. Paris, 
1863, v. 33, p. 5.] 

Note. — Inset — "Esquisse de I'itinferaire dela Vera-Cruz a Mexico d'aprfes H. Kiepert." 

L. C. 



MEXICO. 359 

1862. 

Umgebung von Mexico bis Veracruz nach den von A. v. Humboldt, v. Gerolt, 
Heller, Smith und der Sociedad Mejicana de Geografia y Estadistica veroffent- 
lichten karten und deraufnahme des states Puebla von Almazan und F. v. Held- 
reich, zusammengestellt v. H. Kiepert. 6f x 9^. 

In Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde zu Berlin. Zeitscbrift. Neue folge. 8°. Berlin, D. Reimer, 
1862. T.12. pi. 6.] 

L. C. 
1863. 

Carta general de la repiiblica Mexicana, formada par Antonio Garcia Cubas. 1863. 
47x56. Mexico, H. Iriarte & ca., 1863. 

L.C. 
1863. 

Carte de la Sonora, avec Vindication de ses mines d'apres la carte de A. Garcia Cubas 
et les cartes am^ricaines par V. A. Malte-Brun. 9J x 8. 

[In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 186. 6™ s6rie. 8°. Paris, A. Bertrand, [1865] , p. 256.] 
Note.— Same map found in 177-187. e^'s^rie. 33-34. 1863. 

L.C. 
1863. 

Carte de la Sonora, avec Vindication de ses mines d'aprSs la carte de A. Garcia Cubas 
et les cartes am^ricaines par V. A. Malte-Brim. Grav6 chez Erhard. 9J x 7|. 
[In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 6™ s6rie. 8°. Paris, 1863, v. 34, p. 129.] 

L. C. 
1863? 

Mexico und die Eepubliken von Central- America. Bearbeitet von C. Graf. (Tehuan- 
tepec Eisenbahn-Project. Bearbeitet von Barnard, 1851. Honduras. Eisen- 
bahn Project. Bearbeitet von E. G. Squier u. W. N. Jeffers, 1853. ) Weimar, 
[1863?] British Museum. 

1863. 

Plan de Mexico et des environs dans un rayon de huit kilometres. [Also] Esquisse de 
I'itin^raire de la Vera-Cruz a Mexico d'apres H. Kiepert. 16| x 11. 

[In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 177-178. 6™ s6rie. 33-34. 8°. Paris, A. Bertrand, 1863.] 
Note. — This map also found in " Revue maritime et coloniale," 1863, v. 7, p. 692. 

L.C. 
1864. 

Essai d'une carte ethnographique du Mexique d'apres les travaux de Clavigero, de 
Humboldt, de Beltrami, de Stephens, de Duflot de Mofras et de Brasseur de Bour- 
bourg par V. A. Malte-Brun, 1864. Echelles au 1: 7000000. Grave chez Erhard. 
13 X 18i 

[In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 6™e s6rie. 8". Paris, 1864, v. 39, p. 5.] 
Note.— Inset— " Valine de Mexico." 

L.C. 
1864. 

Geological map and profiles of some of the principal mining districts of Mexico. 
Scale of 12 miles to 1 inch or 1: 760320. 2 maps, each 23 x 28. 

[In Egloffstein ( F. W. ) . Contributions to the geology and the physical geography of Mexico. 
8». New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1864, at end.] 

Note.—" Egloffstein is only the editor. The true author of the geological map, profiles, and 
descriptions is Baron Frederick von Gerolt, formerly Prussian minister at Mexico and after- 
wards at Washington." 

1865. 

Carta general del Imperio Mexicano. Formada y corregida con presencia de los 
ultimos datos y el auxilio de las autoridades mds competentes. Decaen y Debray, 
editores. Col. fold., 31 x 45. Mexico, Decaen & Debray, 1865. L. C. 



360 MEXICO. 

1865. 

Itin^raire de Mexico a Durango, dessin6 par E. Picard d'apres leg croquis de route de 
I'abM Domenech. 1865. 12 x 17. 

[In Soci6t6 de g6ographie. Bulletin. 5= s6rie. 8°. Paris, 18G6, v. 12, p. 272.] 

L. C. 

1865. 

Schonberg's map of Mexico. Fold. 14 x 23. [New York, Schonberg & Co., 1865.] 

L. C. 
1867. 

Johnson's Mexico. Col. 11^ x 17. New York, A. J. Johnson [1867]. L. 0. 

1867. 

Nouvelle carte du Mexique, du Texas et d'une partie des ]&tats limitrophes . . . 
par H. Brue . . . Revue et augment6e par A. Vuillemin. (Details des environs 
de Mexico et de la Vera-Cruz. Complement de la carte, donnant le Yucatan et 
une partie des provinces unies de rAm6rique Centrale.) Paris, 1867, 

British Museum. 
1867. 

Piano de la ciudad de Mexico. Levantado de orden del Ministerio de Fomento por 
sus ingenieros. 1867. 28 x 39 J. Mexico, E. M. Sagredo, [1867]. L. C. 

1867. 

Traveling and military map of Sonora. From private field notes by Cummings & 
James Cherry. 27 x 30. [Pittsburg, Cummings & J. Cherry, 1867.] L. C. 

1868. 

Map of Lower California. From special surveys of coast and interior, made for the 
Lower California Company in 1866-67. By the company's engineers, under direc- 
tion of J. Ross Browne. Drawn by Joseph Goldsheider, civil engineer and 
topographer, January, 1868. 17| x 14f . [New York, N. Y. Lith. and Printing 
Co.] 1868. L. C. 

1868. 

Originalkarte der californischen Habinsel nach den Aufnahmen der fiir die Lower 
California Company ausgefiihrten Expedition unter J. Ross Browne, W, M. Gabb 
und F. Loehs [etc. ] , 13 x 9. Gotha, J. Perthes, 1868. 

[In Petermann (A.) Mittheilungen. 4°. Gotha, J.Perthes. 1868, pi. 14, p. 272.1 

L. C. 

1868. 

Piano corogrdfico de una parte del Estado de Campeche, que comprende todo el mdr- 

gen derecho del rio Usumacinta hasta sus confines, en el que estd incluso el par- 

tido del Cdrmen. Formado por el agrimensor geometra F. R. Shiels, 1868. 25 x 21. 

[In Sociedad de Geografla y Estadistica de la Rep\iblica Mexicana. Boletin. Segunda 6poca. 

4°. M6xico, J. M. Sandoval. 1870, v. 2, at end.] 

L.C. 

1869. 

Carta general de la Republica Mexicana. 15 x 20 inches. 

[In Garcia Cubas (Antonio). Curso elemental de geografla universal. 8°. Mexico, 1869.] 

L.C. 

1869. 

Carta general de la Republica Mexicana. 19i x 26^. 

[In Mexico y sus alrededores. Fol. Mexico, V. Debray, 1869.] 

L.G. 



MEXICO. 361 

1869. 

Piano general de la ciudad de Mexico. 1869. Escala de 1,000 varas castellanas. 

24 X 32. 

[In Mexico y sus alrededores. Nueva edici6n aumentada. Fol. Mexico, V. Debray, 1869. 

L.O. 
1870. 

Carta general de la Eepiiblica Mexicana. Formada y corregida en vista de los liltimos 
datos. Escala de leguas mexicanas de 26 y | al grado. 20 x 26^. 

[In M6xico y sus alrededores. Nueva edicion aumentada. Pol. M6xico, V. Debray, 1869.] 

L.C. 
1871. 

Carte du chemin de fer interoc^anique de Mexico (la grande ligne naturelle entre 
1' Europe et I'Asie) et du chemin de fer interam^rique (la grande ligne naturelle 
entre I'Am^rique du Nord et I'Am^rique de Sud). L^on, auteur, constructeur et 
propri^taire. 22 x 28^. [New York, G. W. & C. B. Colton & Co., 1871.] 

L.C. 
1873. 

Carte du Mexique. Dress^e au depot de la guerre, par Mr. Niox, captaine d'6tat- 
major.' D'apres les lev6s des officiers du corps expeditionnaire et les renseigne- 
ments recueillis par le Bureau Topographique. Echelle=l : 3000000. Paris. 1873. 

Published by authority of the honorable Secretary of War in the office of the Chief of 
Engineers, U. S. Army. 27^ by 41i. [Washington.] 1881. 

1873. 

Carta geogrdfica y administrativa de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, formada con 
presencia de los datos mds exactos y recientes, por el ingeniero Antonio Garcia 
Cubas . . . 1873. 1: 2000000. 

1873-1874. 

Carte du Mexique, dress^e au depot de la guerre. Par Mr. Niox, d'apres les lev^s 
des officiers du corps expeditionnaire et les renseignements recueillis par le 
Bureau Topographique. 2 sheets fold. 28 by 41. Paris, ve. Ethiou-P^rou, 1873. 
[And] Notice sur la carte du Mexique. Extrait du Bulletin de la Soci6t^ de 
G^ographie. Anon. 22 pp. 8". Paris, J. Dumaine. 1874. 

L. C. 
1873-1875. 

C. Dewey's Aufnahmeder Calif ornischen Habinsel under der Mexikanischen Kiisten 
1873-74. Von A. Petermann. 21 by 7J. Gotha, J. Perthes. 1875. 

[In Petermann (A. ) Mittheilungen. 4». Gotha, J. Perthes. 1875. v. 21, pi. 9.] 



L. C. 



1874. 



Atlas metodico para la ensenanza de la geografia de la Republica Mexicana ... A. 
Garcia Cubas. Mexico. 1874. 



C. 



1874. 



Case's map of the United States, British Provinces, Mexico, and part of the West 
Indies. Col. 60 by 70. Hartford, O. D. Case & Co. 1874. 

L. C. 
1874. 

Cram's railroad and county map of the United States, Canada, and Mexico. 38 by 
54. Chicago, G. F. Cram. 1874. 

Note. — On the reverse side is an historical map of the world. 

L. C. 



362 MEXICO. 

1874. 

The granger's map of the United States, British Provinces. West Indies, Mexico, and 
Central America. [By Gaylord Watson, anon.] 38 by 50. Chicago, Watson's 
Chicago branch. 1874. 

L. C. 
1876. 

Map of the three great tropical American railways, viz: 1st. The Yucatan Central. 
2d. The Yucatan Pacific. 3d. The Great Central and Southern American. Leon 
and Harriet Lewis, projectors, builders, and proprietors. 

Prepared by G. W. & C. B. Colton & Co. 22 x 28. [New York, G. W. & C. B. Colton & Co., 1876.] 

L. C. 

1876. 

William's [G. W.] co.pperplate map of the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central 
America, West Indies, etc. 63x63. Philadelphia, J, M. Atwood. [1876.] 

L. C. 

1877. 

Carta administrativa-itineraria de la republica Mexicana. Secretaria de Estado y del 
Despacho de Fomento. Comision de cartografia, bajo la direccion del ing. A. 
Diaz. No. 1. Expendio, en el archivo de cartas. Constr-y-dib,-C. Alvarez y 
E. TangassiUt-Salazar. la. edicion, 1877. 17 J x 23f. [Mexico.] 1877. 

L. C. 
1877. 

Eepublica Mexicana. Piano del Istmo de Tehuantepec. 1:250000. Government of 
Mexico. 1877. 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 
1878. 

Karte der Habinsel Yucatan, hauptsachlich nach der von Joachin Hiibbe und Andres 
Aznar Perez zusammengestellten und von C. Hermann Berendt revidirten und 
vermehrten mapa de la peninsula de Yucatan, von 1878. 13 x 17J. Maassstab 
1:1600000. 

[In Petermann's Mittheilungen. 1879. 4°. Gotha, J. Perthes [1879]. v. 25, pi. 11 at end.] 

L. C. 
1879. 

New map of Mexico, engraved expressly for "Lester's Mexican Republic." 1879. 
Prepared by G. W. & C. B. Colton & Co. [1879.] 

L.C. 

1879. 

Voyage en Sonora (Mexique) par A. Pinart, 1879. Echelle de 1:4000000. 4 J x 5 J. 
In Soci6t6 de g6ographie. Bulletin. 6« s6rie. 8°. Paris, 1880. v. 20, at end] . 

1880. 

Mexico and Central America. By W. Hughes. (Enlarged Plan of the Isthmus of 
Panama.) G. Philip & Son: London and Liverpool [1880 ?]. 

British Museum. 

1881. 

Cram's new indexed county and railroad map of the United States, Canada, and 
Mexico. Compiled from official records of the land department of Washington, 
D. C. Drawn and engraved by G. F. Cram. 49 x 80. Chicago, G. F. Cram. 
1881. 

L. C. 



MEXICO. 363 

1881. 

Map of Mexico, Central America, and Isthmus of Panama, showing railroads, proposed 
railroads, etc. 37^ x 56|. New York, G.Watson. 1881. 

L. C. 
1881. 

Map of the Mexican National Railway, showing the lines granted by the Mexican 
Government to the Mexican National Construction Company. (Palmer-Sullivan 
concession. ) From the map of Captain Nioux [Niox] , published in the office of 
the Chief of Engineers, U. S. A. 1881. Scale, 1:3000000. 27| x 41^. Wash- 
ington. 1881. 

Note. — Inset "Map showing the political divisions." 

L. C. 
1881. 

Nuevo mapa de los estados de Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango y territorios de 
la Baja California. Formada par G. de Fleury. 24 x 34. San Francisco, pub- 
lished by A. Gensoul, revised by W. Holt. 1881. 

L. c. ; 

1881-1882. 

Official map of southern Arizona and of the States of Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, 
Durango. Prepared especially for the mining record. Compiled from surveys, 
reconnoissances, and other sources, by Guiilermo Rose. 1882. 26 x 34. New 
York, J. Bien, photo. [1881.] 

L. C. 
1882. 

"Commercial Herald." The southwestern railroad system, United States and 
Mexico. Supplement to the "Commercial Herald" and "Market Review." 
Jan., 1882. 22 x 34. San Francisco, H. S. Crocker & Co. [1882.] 

L. C. 

1882. 

Karte derVereinigten Staaten von Nord-Amerika nebst Mexico . . . Entworfen von 
Dr. J. M. Ziegler. Gezeichnet von T. von Bomsdorff. 1882. 

British Museum. 
1882. 

Map of Sinaloa with statistical and geological notes. By Frederick G. Weidner. 
1 pi. 19 pp. 1 map, 35J x 29, fold. 8°. San Francisco, Francis, Valentine & 
Co. [1882]. L. C. 

1882. 

Map of the Republic of Mexico. Revised and corrected by Lorenzo Castro, drawn 
by Theodore Gentilz. 30 x 44. New York, Thompson & Moreau [1882]. 

[In Castro (Lorenzo). The Republic of Mexico in 1882. 12». New York, 1882.] 

L. C. 
1882. 

Nuevo mapa estadistico y ferrocarillero de Mexico y la frontera del norte. — New 
statistical and railroad map of Mexico and the northern frontier. Showing the 
products of the different zones [etc.], by A. K. Owen and Albert von Motz. 
1882. col. 44 X 60. Philadelphia, J. L. Smith, 1882. L. C. 

1883. 

Dahlgren (Charles Bunker). Historic mines of Mexico. 1 p. 1. 220 pp. 2 portraits. 
20 .maps. 8». New York, for the author, 1883. 

List of maps. 

Hysometric map of the Republic of Mexico. 
Production map. 



364 MEXICO. 

Map of Central Mexico (Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and S. liUis-Potosl). 

Map of Guanajuato and Veta Madre. 

Section of Valenciana. 

Map of Veta Grande (Zacatecas), Descubridora, and Quebradilla. 

Map of Pinos. 

Map of Fresnillo. 

Map of Sombrerete. 

Map of Catorce. 

Map of Northwestern Mexico (Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango). 

Map of Guadalupe de los Reyes. 

Map of Rosario. 

Map of Batopilas. 

Map of Parral. 

Map of Cusihuiriachic. 

Map of San Dimas. 

Map of Southern Mexico. 

Map of Tlalpujahua. 

Map of Pachuca and Real del Monte. 

1883. 

El Corazon del Anahuac y sus ferrocarriles. 1:250000. 1883. Published by the 
Major & Knapp Eng. and Mfg. and Lith. Co., N. Y. U. S. war dept. lib. 

1883. 

Map of the Texas, Topolobampo and Pacific E. R. and Tel. Co., from Chihuahua 
and Parral to Topolobampo Harbor. 1 : 5280 (about 12 miles to the inch). Albert 
von Motz. Published by T. T. & P. R. R. Tel. Co., 1883. 

U. S. War Dept. Lib. 

1883. 

Steamship line and railroad map of the Merchants' and Tourists' Guide to Mexico. 
13 X 19. Chicago, C. W. Laremba, 1883. L. C. 

1883. 

Watson's nuevo mapa de Mexico y la frontera del Norte, America Central, Istmo de 
Panamd, Cuba, Jamaica, and Bahama Islands. 38 x 55. Nueva York, G. Wat- 
son, 1883. 

L. C. 

1883-1884. 

Memoria presentada al Congreso de la Union por el Secretario de Estado y del Des- 
pacho de Fomento, Colonizacion, Industria y Comercio de la Republica Mexicana, 
General Cdrlos Pacheco. Corresponde d los afios trascurridos de enero de 1883 
de 1885. V. 6. Atlas. 2 p. 1. 48 maps. fol. Mexico: Oflcina tipoerdfica de 
la secretarfa de fomento, 1887. 

Contents. 

Carta general telegrdfica de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, comprendiendo lo construido y en 

explotaci6n en las diversas lineas hasta junio de 1885. 
Sheet 1. Diagrama que manifiesta el estado de las hojas de publicacion A la 100,000» en junio 
30 de 1885. Regi6n del norte. 

2. Canev&s de las operaciones topogrdficas ejecutadas hasta junio 30 de 1885. Regi6n 

del norte. (Fracci6n superior.) 

3. Canevds de las operaciones topogrdficas ejecutadas hasta junio 80 de 1885. Regi6n 

del norte. (Fraeci6n inferior.) 

4. Diagrama que manifiesta el estado de las hojas de publicaci6n &. la 100,000* en junio 

30 de 1885. Regi6n central y de oriente. 

5. Canevfe de las operaciones topogrdflcas ejecutadas hasta junio 80 de 1886. Regi6n 

central y de oriente. (Fraccion superior.) 



MEXICO. ^^5 

Sheet 6 Canevsis de las operaciones topogr&flcas ejecutadas hasta junio 30 de 1885. Regi6n 
central ydeoriente. (Fraccion inferior.) Carta general de la Repiiblica Mexicana. 
7 Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la 1» fracci6n de la zona. 
8' Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la porci6n la 1», 2^ fracci6n de la zona. 
9" Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la porcion 2» de l^ 2- fracci6n de la zona. 
10' Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la porcion la de la 3^ fraccion de a zona, 
ll' Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la porcion 2» de la 3- fraccion de la zona 
12! Piano de la triangulacion practicada entre Campo Astronomico y Cabo Haro, en el 
Puerto de Gruaymas. . ^ j a- 

13. Piano del puerto de Guaymas, con un proyecto para el mejoramiento de sus condi- 

ciones sanitarias. 

14. Mapa del canton Meoqui. Estado de Chihuahua. 

15. Mapa del canton Balleza. Estado de Chihuahua. 

16. Mapa del cant6n Jimenez. Estado de Chihuahua. 
17 Mapa del canton Camargo. Estado de Chihuahua. 

18. Puente para el rio Atoyac. Direccion del camino de Tehuacto 4 Puerto Angel por 

Oaxaca. Piano num. 1. . , ^ „ , 

19. Ferrocarril Hidalgo. Proyecto para el ensanche de la estacion de Pachuca y 

alineamiento del camino que conduce & Mexico. 
20 Ferrocarril de MSrida & Calkinl. Proyecto de estacion en Umto. 

21. Ferrocarril de Puebla & Izucar de Matamoros. Seccion 1* de Puebla & Cholula. 

Proyecto del Puente de la Union sobre el rio Atoyac. 

22. Ferrocarril de Puebla &. Izucar de Matamoros. Seccion 2» de Cholula & Atlixco. 

2° tramo. Puente de Teyecatl. 

23. Ferrocarril de Puebla A Izucar de Matamoros. 2" seccion de Cholula A Atlixco. 

Puente de Tejaluca en el kilometro 43. 

24. Piano topogr^fico del rio Chubiscar en una zona de dos kil6metros & cada lado de la 

linea del puente del Ferrocarril central mexicano. 

25. Forrocarril central mexicano. Piano de una de las trabas del puente sobre el rio 

Grande del Norte. 

26. Ferrocarril central Mexicano. Piano de la fundaci6n estacada y de los apoyos del 

puente sobre el rio Grande del Norte. 

27. Piano topogrMco del rio Conchos en una zona de dos kilometros &. cada lado de la 

linea del puente del Ferrocarril central mexicano. 

28. Piano general del puente sobre el rio Conchos. 

29. Puente sobre el rio Salto. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosl & Tam- 

pico. 

30. Detalles del puente sobre el rio Salto. Ferrocarril central mexicano. 

31. Ferrocarril central. Divisi6n de San Luis Potosi & Tampico. Pilares del centro 

y del este del puente sobre el rio Salto, en Santa Rosa. 

32. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosl A. Tampico. Estribo oeste del 

puente sobre el rio Salto, en Santa Rosa. 

33. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosi & Tampico. Piano y detalles del 

puente provisional, sobre un agujero en el kilometro 118. 

34. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosi & Tampico. Piano y detalles del 

puente de Palastro proyectado sobre un agujero en la est. 4,715, kilometro 118. 

35. Ferrocarril central. Mamposteria y cimientos para el puente sobre el rio Tamasopo. 

36. Ferrocarril central mexicano. Division de Tampico. Puente sobre el rio Choy. 

37. Ferrocarril central mexicano. Linea del Pacifico. Division oriental. Lineas y 

reconocinlientos entre Guadalajara y Lagos. 

38. Ferrocarril de PuelDla & San Marcos y Villa de Libres. Puente en la barranca de 

Xalcatl. Tercera seccion. 

39. Rada de Salina Cruz. 

40. Proyecto de muelle para el puerto de Salina Cruz. 

41. Canal n. del Chijol. Proyecto de trazo final para someterlo & la aprobacion del 

Supremo Gobierno. 

42. Faro y torre para el puerto de Guaymas, establecidos por la Compania del ferro- 

carril de Sonora. 

43. Piano de una parte del estado de Colima. Proyecto de saneamiento para el puerto 

de Manzanillo. 

44. Muelle para el puerto de Manzanillo. 

45. Muelle para el puerto de Manzanillo. 

46. Muelle para el puerto de Manzanillo. 

47. Proyecto de monumento & la memoria de Sor. Juana In^s de la Cruz. 

L. C. 



366 MEXICO. 

1884. 

Carta ferrocarrilera de Mexico, con los datos mds recientes acerca de unas y otras 
lineas. Expresamente formada por ingenieros de la Secretan'a de Fomento del 
Gobierno Federal para el primer almanaque historico, artistico y monumental de 
la Republica Mexicana. Publicado por Manuel Caballero, editor de "El Noti- 
cioso," Mexico. Scale: 1 : 3800000. 23f x 35 J. New York, G. W. & C. B. Colton 
& Co. [1884]. L. C. 

1884. 

Carta topogrdfica general de los Alrrededores de Fuebla, formada por la Comisio 
geografico-exploradora. 1 : 50000. Published by Mexican Government, 1884. 
3d serie 6a. A. P. U. S. War Dept. Lib. 

1884. 

Der Staat Sinaloa in Mexico. Nach eigenen aufnahmen und rekognoscirungen von 
Friedrich G. Weidner. 16J x 13J. Gotha, J. Perthes, 1884. 
[In Petermann (J.) Mittheilungen. 4°. Gotha, 1884, v. 30. pi. 1.] 

L. C. 
1884. 

General map of the Republic of Mexico, showing railroads, steamships, and telegraph 
communications. 1:2217600. Published by Rand & McNally, Chicago, 1884. 
Corrected to 1884. In four sheets. U. S. War Dept. Lib. 

1884 

Carta topogrdtica general de los alrededores de Puebla. Formada por la Comision 
Geogrdfico-exploradora. Secretaria de Estado y del Despacho de Guerra y 
Marina. Comision geogrdfica de fomento y guerra. Bajo la direccion del ing. 
Al Diaz. Levantamiento: varios individuos de la comision. Construccion : cap. 
1° E. M. — Beltran. Dibujo y escrituras: Ing. C. T. Alvarez. Edicion de 1884. 
3a serie. Letra A. P. lOJx 25|. Escala de 1 :50000— 1'""=50 metres. L. C. 

1884. 

Mapa de la red telegrdfica y de los itinerarios generales la Republica Mexicana. 
Formado segiin datos oticiales por F. A. Labadie. 21j x 27^. San Francisco, 
Cal. Gregoire, Tauzy y ca. [1884.] 

Note.— Another copy in the library traced on linen. 

L. C. 
1884. 

Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. Drawn and engraved expressly for 
the Encyclopaedia Britannica, American reprint. Scale 95 miles — one inch. 
19x27. Philadelphia, J. M. Stoddart Co., [1884]. 
Note.— Copyright in 1884 by Roger Sherman. 

L. C. 
1884. 

Mexico. Mapa de las lineas del ferrocarril central y conecciones. Escala del mapa 
1 : 6000000. 14^ x 20 J. Buffalo, N. Y. : Matthews, Northrup & Co. 1884. 
Note. — Copyrighted by the Mexican Central Railway Co., Limited, 1884. 

1884. 
Mexique. Echelle, 1:5000000. 

[In Vivien de St. Martin (Louis). Atlas universal de g6ographie, fol. Paris, Hachette, 
1884, Pt. 73.] 

L. C. 



MEXICO. 



1884. 



367 



Poole Bros. Eailway map of Mexico. 14^ x 20^. [Chicago, Poole Bros., 1884.] 

L. C. 
1884. 

Watson's nuevo mapa de Mexico y la frontera del Norte, America Central, Istmo de 
Panama, Cuba, Jamaica y islas de Bahama. 37 x 54. Nueva York, G. Watson, 
1884. L. C. 

1884-1889. 

International (water) Boundary Commission. United States and Mexico. Treaties 
of 1884 and 1889. Brownsville and Matamoras jetties, report of Col. Anson 
Mills, 3d U. S. Cav. Maps by engineers of commission and Capt. M. M. Men- 
diola, Mexican engineer. Wash., 19, 5 pL, 5 sheets of maps. 

No. 1, reference map, showing Rio Grande and vicinity of Brownsville, with river as 
located by the commission of 1883. Scale, 1:6000. No. 2, Rio Grande sections and cross- 
sections at Fortin Paredes and Freeport. Scale, 1:1000. No. 3, Rio Grande, jetties and cross- 
sections in the vicinity of Brownsville, Texas and Matamoras. Tamaulipas, Dec. 1894. Scale, 
1:1000. No. 4, Bends of the Rio Grande at Casa Matar and artillery quarters. Scale, 1:1000. 
No. 5, comparative map of river and jetties in the vicinity of Brownsville, Fort Brown, and 
Santa Cruz Point, showing the surveys of 1853, 1869, 1875, 1877, 1880-82, 1894. Scale, 1: 2000. 

U. S. War Dept. Lib. 
1885. 

Atlas Mexicano por Antonio Garcia Cubas. 31 sheets incl. Carta General, fol. 
Mexico, Debray, suc's 1885. 

Contents. 
Carta 1. Sonora. Escala 1:2000000. 

2. Chihuahua. Escala 1 : 2000000. 

3. Coahuila. Escala 1:2000000. 

4. Nuevo Leon. Escala 1: 1200000. 

5. Tamaulipas. Escala 1:1500000. 

6. Veracruz. Escala 1 : 1200000. 

7. Tabasco. Escala 1 : 1200000. 

8. Campeche. Escala 1:1200000. 

9. Yucatan. Escala 1:1200000. 

10. Sinaloa. Escala 1:1500000. 

11. Jalisco. Escala 1:1500000. 

12. Colima. Escala 1:500000. 

13. Michoacdn. Escala 1 : 1000000. 

14. Guerrero. Escala 1 : 1000000. 

15. Oaxaca. Escala 1:100000. 

16. Chiapas. Escala 1:1200000. 

17. Durango. Escala 1:1200000. 

18. Zacatacas. Escala 1:1200000. 

19. Aguascalientes. . Escala 1 : 300000. 

20. San Luis Potosi. Escala 1:1325000. 

21. Guanajuato. Escala 1:600000. 

22. Quer^taro. Escala 1:480000. 

23. Hidalgo. Escala 1:6000000. 

24. Mexico. Escala 1: 500000. 

25. Morelos. Escala 1:250000. 

26. Puebla. Escala 1: 900000. 

27. Tlaxcala. Escala. 1:230000. 

28. Baj a California. Escala 1:3000000. 

29. Distrito Federal. Escala 1:245000. 

30. Territorio de Tepic. 

1885. 

Map of the City of Mexico, authorized for publication with the Mexican guide, by 
General Carlos Pacheco, Minister of Public Works. 1885. 17 x 24. 

[In Janvier (Thomas A.) The Mexican guide, btU ed, 16°, New York, C. Scribner's Sons, 
1890. at end.] 

L. 0. 



368 MEXICO. 

1885. 

Map of the United States and Territories, with adjacent parts of Canada and Mexico; 
also part of the West Indies. 1:2534400. (40 miles to the inch.) U. S. Gen- 
eral Land Office. 1885. 

U. S. War Dept. Lib. 
1885. 

Mapa general de Mexico. Ferrocarril Central, Mexico. 1885. ( Blue print, 1 sheet. ) 

U. S. War Dept. Lib. 
1885. 

Official map of the State of Sonora. 1885. By Chas. E. Herbert. 23 x 27. 1 sheet 
fold. 18°. [n. p. 1885.] 

Note.— On cover date, 1884. Title in Spanish and English. 

L. C. 
1886. 

Map of the environs of the City of Mexico. Authorized for publication with the 
Mexican Guide, by General Carlos Pacheco, Minister of Public Works. 1886. 
in x 18^ 

[In Janvier (Thomas A.) The Mexican Guide. 5th ed. 16°. New York, C. Scribner's Sons, 
1890, at end.] 

L. C. 

1886. 
Mexico. 16^ x 23. 

[In Janvier (Thomas A.) The Mexican Guide. 5th ed. 16°. New York, C. Scribner's Sons, 
1890, at end.] 
Note.— Map copyrighted in 1886, by W. M. Bradley & Bro. 

1886. 

Outline map of field operations against hostile Chihuahua Indians, 1:950,400 (15 miles 
to the inch). By Lieut. E. J. Spencer, 0. of E., engr. officer, department of 
Arizona. 1886. 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 
1887. 

Carta telegrdfica y ferrocarrilera de la Republica Mexicana. Direccion general de 
estadistica, secretaria de f omen to, 1887. Escala de 1 : 3000000. 27| x 37^. 

L. C. 
1888. 

Carta general de la Repiiblica de M^jico y de los Estados Unidos del Norte, con 
relacion A las propiedades de la Compania minera de fierro mejicana. Scale: 
1: 3800000. 32 J x 44^ New York, G. W. & C. B. Colton & Co., [1888]. 

L. C. 
1889. 

Bancroft's map of the mineral districts of northern Lower California. Designed by 
Fred J. Engelhardt, March 1, 1889. Compiled from official authentic maps and 
sketches [on record] from special investigation in person and assisted by the 
oldest and most expert Mexican prospectors, 1888-1889. 16^ x 19. San Fran- 
cisco, The Bancroft company, 1889. 

L. C. 
1889. 

Bosquejo de una carta geologica de la Republica Mexicana. Formada por disposicion 
del Secretario de Fomento, Gral. Carlos Pacheco, por una comision especial bajo 
la direccion del profesor Antonio del Castillo, 1889. Escala de 3,800,000°. 29 x 
41 J. Paris, Erhard hermanos, [1889]. 

L. C. 



MEXICO. 369 



1889. 



Cartes commerciales— Etata-Unis du Mexique (1st pt., north Mexico; 2d pt, south 
Mexico), 1:3000000. F. Bianconi, Paris, 1889. (Forms 7th series, nos. 4 and 5, 
of geographical memoirs published by Chaix, Paris) . 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 

1888. 

Memoria para la carta general geogrdfica de la Republica Mexicana. Ano de 1889. 
27 pp., 1 1. 8°. Mexico, Oficina tip. de la Secretaria de Fomento, 1890. 

L. C. 

1889. 

Mexico. 1:4435200. (70 miles to inch.) Bradley & Co., Phil., 1889. 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 

1889. 

Piano geologico del Eeal de S. Antonio y el Triunfo de la Baja California: Formado 
por Antonio del Castillo, ingeniero de minas. Eevisado en 1889. 25^x21 J. 
Mexico, E. M. Moreau y ho. [18891. 

Note.— Inset "Estremidad sur de la peninsula de la Baja California. Bosquejo Geologico." 

L. C. 
1S89. 

United States with adjacent portions of Mexico. 1885. Corrected to 1889. Scale, 
1:5000000. 4 sheets. 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 
1890. 

Carta general de la Republica Mexicana. Formada en el Ministerio de Fomento con 
los datos m^s recientes, por disposicion del secretario del ramo. General Carlos 
Pacheco, 1890. Escala de 1 : 2000000. 44^x68. Paris, Erhard hermanos. [1890]. 

L. C. 
1890. 
Carta de los ferrocarriles de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Secretaria de Fomento, 
seccion tercera. Escala: 1:2000000. 44^x66. Paris, Erhard hermanos, 1890. ' 

L. C. 
[1890]? 

Carta minera de la Republica Mexicana. Formada por disposicion del Secretario de 
Fomento, Gral. Carlos Castillo. Escala de 3,000,000. 29x41^. Paris, Erhard 
hermanos [1890]? 

1891. 

Map of Mexico, prepared under the direction of Captain Daniel M. Taylor, Ordnance 
Department, and 1st Lieutenant George P. Scriven, Signal Corps, in the military 
information division, Adjutant-General's Office, War Department; William N. 
Peck, chief of division, by Charles H. Ourand, draughtsman. 1891. 30|x40i 

L. C. 
1891. 

Rand, McNally & Co.'s indexed Atlas of the World. Map of Mexico. Statute miles, 
69.16—1 degree. Kilometers, 111.307—1 degree. 19x26. Chicago, Rand 
McNally & Co., 1891. 

Note.— Inset of "Valley of Mexico on an enlarged scale." 

L. C. 
65lA 24 



370 



MEXICO. 



1891. 



Keducciun del piano olicial de la ciudad de Mexico. Levantado de orden del H. 
Ayuntamiento por la Comisiun de saneamiento y desagiie en 1889 y 1890 deta- 
llado ampliamente y publicado por la antigua y acreditada casa C. Montauriol y 
ca.,1891. 29x38i 

L. C. 

1891-1892. 

Carta de la Repiiblica. 1:100000 1 Bl. 18. I. M. Mexico.— N. Tetzmeloccan.— 
O. Huamantla.— S. Popocatepetl.— T. Puebla.— 11. K. Llanos.— P. Chalchico- 
mola. — U. Tlacoyalco.— V. Orizaba.— Iv. A. Tehuacdn. Mexico, Secretaria de 
Fomento. Carte des Etats-Unis du Mexique dress^e par les soins de la Soci^t^ 
de geographic de Lille d'apres les plus r^cents documents officiels. B. S. geogr. 
Lille 18. Diaz, A., Carta topogrdfica general de los alrededores de Puebla, 
formada por la Comision Geogrdfica Exploradora. Edicion de 1884. (3"^ s6rie.) 
1:50000. Paris, impr. Erhard. Jaccottey, P. , et M. Mabyre, Carte des services 
maritimes postaux des Antilles et du Mexique. Paris, Delagrave, ^dit. Rand, 
McNally & Co.'s indexed (pocket) map of Mexico. New York and Chicago, cl. 

Taken from " Bibliotheca geographica," 1891 and 1892. 

1891-1893. 

Boequejo de una carta geologica de la Republica Mexicana. Formada por disposicion 
del Secretario de Fomento por una comision especial bajo la direccion de Antonio 
del Castillo. Reformada con nuevos datos en 1891, 1892 y 1893. Escala: 
1:10000000. 10ixl4J. Mexico, E. M. Moreau, [1893]. L. C. 

1891-1896. 

Report of the international boundary commission. United States and Mexico. 
1891-1896. Maps title. 26 maps. fol. Washington, Government Printing Office, 
1898. 

List of maps. 
Index map of the boundary. 
California line. 

Colorado River section of the boundary (in colors). 
Arizona — Sonora oblong line. 
Parallel 31° 20' north latitude. 
Meridian section. 
Parallel 31° 47' north latitude. 
Profile of the boundary. 

L.C. 
1892. 

Carta de los ferrocarriles de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. 1:2000000. 1890. Cor- 
rected to 1892. Published by the Mexican Government. 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 
1892. 

Map of Mexico. About 1 : 3000000 (45 miles to inch) . By C. H. Ourand. Published 
by Bureau of Military Information, War Department, 1891. Revised ed., 1892. 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 
1892-1893. 

Krater-Typen in Mexico und Guatemala. Nach Aufnahmen von Dr. Carl Sapper, 1892 
und 1893. 12x8|. [In Petermann's Mittheilungen, 1894. 4°. Gotha, J. 
Perthes, [1894]. v. 40, pi. 8 at end.] L. 0. 

1893. 

Carta de los ferrocarriles de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. 1893. 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 



MEXICO. 



1893. 



371 



Carta de los meteoritos de Mexico, 6 regiones de la Repiiblica en que han caido fierros 
y piedras meteoricas. Formada, bajo los auspicios de la Secretaria de Fomento, 
por Antonio del Castillo, ingeniero de minas, director de la Escuela Nacional de 
Ingenieros y de la Comision Geologica. Escala: 1:10000000. 14|xl0^. Mexico, 
Moreauy ho.,[1893]. L. C. 

1893. 

Carta minera de la Repiiblica Mexicana. Formada, por disposicion del Secretario de 
Fomento, por el ingeniero de minas, Antonio del Castillo. Corregida en 1893. 
Escala: 1:2000000. 42^x66. Mexico, E. M. Moreau y ho., [1893]. 

1893. 

Piano de la ciudad de Mexico. 10jxl5|. [In Diccionario enciclopedico hispano- 
americano. 8°. Barcelona, Montaner & Simon, 1893. v. 12, bet. pp. 740-741.] 

L. C. 

1893. 

Castillo (Antonio del). — Bosquejo de una carta geologica de la Repiiblica Mexicana. 
1 : 10000000. Comision Geologica Mexicana. Mexico. 

Carta de los meteoritos de Mexico, 6 regiones de la Repiiblica en que han caido 

fierros y piedras meteoricas. 1:10000000. Comision Geologica Mexicana. 
Mexico. 

Cartas geologicas de pozos artesianos abiertos en la Gran Cuenca de Mexico. 

Comision Geologica Mexicana. Mexico. 

Piano geologico del Penon de los Banos. 1 : 4000. Comision Geologico Mexi- 
cana. Mexico. 

Piano geologico y petrogrdfico de la Cuenca de Mexico, region sw. 1 : 2000000. 

Comision Geologica Mexicana. Mexico. 

Cabanas L. y Ordonez E. Piano geologico de las minas de fierro de la Fer- 

riera, de la Encarnacion y del distrito minero de S. Jos6 del Oro. 1:20000. 
Comision Geologica Mexicana. Mexico. 

Taken from "Bibliotheca Geographica, 1893." 

1893. 

Piano geologico y petrogrdfico de la cuenca de Mexico, region SW. Formado por 
Antonio del Castillo y Ezequiel Ordonez, 1893. No. 1 — SW. de la cuenca de 
Mexico. Escala: 1:200000. 10x18. Mexico, E. M. Moreau y ho., [1893]. 

1894. 

Carta general del Estado de S. Luis Potosi. Levantada por iniciativa de su actual 
gobernador, Gral. Carlos Diez Gutierrez, por la Comision Geogrdtico-exploradora. 
Mexico, 1894. Scale, 1:250000, or 4 stat. miles to an inch. 12 sheets. 

Note. — The scale on which this map is drawn is sufficiently large to admit of a considerable 
amount of detail being shown. The altitudes are given in metres and all means of conununi- 
cation are laid down. On the different sheets of the map some useful statistical and geographi- 
cal information is given in tabular form, together with insets showing the political divisions 
and geographical positions. The hill shading employed is effective, the rivers and streams 
are printed in blue, and the lettering clear. 
Title taken from the Geographical Journal, London, 1896. v. VII, no. 1. 

1894. 

Ferrocarriles de Hidalgo y del Nordeste; piano general. 1:250000. 1894. 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 



372 MEXICO. 

1894. 

Mexico. 17^ x 23^ [Philadelphia], W. M. Bradley & Bro. 1894. 
Note.— From Bradley's atlas of the world, p. 73. Philadelphia, 1885. 

1894. 



L.C. 



Karte der Verbreitung der Sprachen in Siidost-Mexico und Britisch Honduras urn's 
Jahr 1894. Von Dr. Karl Sapper. Massstab: 1: 4000000. 9| x 12^. 

[In Petcrmann's Mittheilungen. 1895. 4°. Gotha, J. Perthes, [1895] . v. 41, pi. 12 at end.' 

L.C. 
1894. 

Map of the United States of Mexico. Drawn and compiled from the latest Mexican 
and United States Government authorities, and other reliable sources. By 
Oscar Hindrichs,C.E. Scale, 1:5385600. 16^x22^. [In Moore (Henry). Rail- 
way guide of the Republic of Mexico. Springfield, O. Huben & More, 1894.] 

L.C. 
1894. 

A general map of the Republic of Mexico, by Brigadier-General Pedro Garcia Conde' 
engraved from original survey by order of the Mexican government, and colored 
to show the departments. The capitals of departments, cities, towns, villages, 
and farms are given; also military centres, anchorages, etc. Four sheets; 50x37 
inches; 64 miles to an inch (1:055040). 

Note. — Title from Stanford's Catalogue of maps. London, Oct. 1894. 

British Museum catalogue of maps mentions editions of 1845 and 1848 (?) of this map. 

1895. 

Chavez (E. A. ) . Republica Mexicana. Recto : Carta muda de geograf la f isica. Verso : 
Carta muda de geografia politica. Paris, impr. lithog. Ve. Bouret. 

Carta general de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, segiin los ultimos datos, for- 

mada bajo la direccion de Ezequiel A. Chavez, para uso de las escuelas primarias 
de la Republica. Echelle: i, 683,44. Cartes muette et avec lettres. Paris, 1895. 
Imp. Monrocq; lib. Bouret. 

Taken from " Bibliotheca Geographica, 1895." 

1895. 
Map of Mexico. 9 x 10. 

[In Campbell (Kean). Campbell's complete guide and descriptive book of Mexico. 12°. 
Chicago, 1895.] 

L.C. 

1895-1896. 

Carta de comunicaciones de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Formada de orden de 
la Secretaria de Estado y del Despacho de Comunicaciones y Obras Piiblicas por 
el Coronel Bodo von Gliimer. Escala: 1:1000000. 1895-1896. 2 sheets each, 
51 X 93. Berlin, grabado 6 impreso en el Institute Litogrdfico, 1895-96. 

L. C. 

1896. 

Carta de la Republica Mexicana, d la 100000^ Secretaria de Estado y del Despacho 
de Fomento. Cbmision geogrdfica de Guerra y Fomento bajo la direccion del 
ing. A. Diaz. Dib. y escrit. : J. Lopez. Constr. y config. : Ing. R. Sandoval. P 
edicion, 1888.— Publicada en 1896. P serie. Hoja-W-l (Y). 16|x22. 

L.C. 



MEXICO. 373 

1896. 
The valley of Mexico. To illustrate the paper by O. H. Howarth. 1: 15000000, or 1 
inch-8 miles. 8J x 7 J. 

[ In Royal Geographical Society Journal, 1896. 8°. London, 1896, v. 8, p. 200.] 

L. C. 
1897. 
Carta de la Republica Mexicana, d la 100000''. Secretaria de Estado y del Despacho 
de Fomento. Comision geogrdfica de Guerra y Fomento bajo la direccion del ing. 
A. Diaz. Constr. y dib. : E. Estrada. Config. : C. Rivera. Escrib. : J. Sama- 
niego. Bajo la inspecc. del Ing. 0. T. Alvarez. I" edicion, 1893. — Publicada en 
1897. Pserie. Hoja-51-(L). 16fx22. 

L. C. 
1897. 

Geologische Karte von den Vereinigten Staaten und Mexiko. Massstab: 1:20000000. 
S^xlOi 

[In Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 5te Aufl. 8°. 1897,v. 17, bet. pp. 230-231.] 

L. 0. 
1897. 

Mexiko. Massstab: 1:12000000. 8} x lOJ. 

[In Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 5te Aufl. 8°. Leipzig und Wien, Bibliographisches 
Institut, 1897. V. 12, bet. pp. 234-235.] 

L. C. 
1897. 

Mexiko. Massstab: 1:12000000. 8^ x 11. 

[In Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon. 14te Aufl. 8°. Leipzig, P. A. Brockhaus, 1895. 
v.ll, bet. pp. 840-841.] 

L. C. 
1897. 

Mexique. Echelle du 10,000,000". Grav6 et imp. par Erhard fres., 1897. 10 x 14. 

[In Grande (La) Encyclop6die. 8°. Paris, H. Lamirault & Cie., [1885-98]. v. 23, bet. pp. 
864-865.] 

L. C. 
1897. 

A section of north Mexico showing the journeys of J. Gurdon L. Stephenson, F. R. 
G. S., and A. Krauss, F. R. G. S., 1897. Scale, 1:1250000 or 1 inch— 19. 7 miles. 
27 X 14. 

[In Royal Geographical Society. Journal, 1898. 8°. London, 1898. v. 11, p. 464.] 

L. C. 

1897. 

The Century Atlas. Mexico. 10 J x 15. New York, the Century Co., 1897. 

L. C. 
1897. 

The Century Atlas. Mexico, central portion. 10^ x 15. New York, the Century Co. 
1897. 

L. C. 

1897. 

Vereinigte Staaten und Mexiko. Massstab: 1:20000000. 8J x lOJ. 

[In Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 5te Aufl. 8°. Leipzig und Wien, Bibliographisches 
Institut, 1897. v. 17, bet. pp. 224-225.] 

L. C. 



374 MEXICO. 

1898. 

Mexico. Scales statute miles, 69. 16 — 1 degree. Kilometres, 111.307 — 1 degree. 19 
X 26. Chicago, Rand, McNally & Co., 1898. 

Note.— From Rand, McNally & Company's indexed Atlas of the World. Inset " Map of the 
valley of Mexico on enlarged scale." 

L. C. 

1898. 

Rand, McNally & Co.'s indexed State and railroad map of Mexico, showing the rail- 
roads, islands, lakes, mountains, rivers. States, towns and villages. 61 pp. 1 fold, 
map. 18°. Chicago and New York, Rand, McNally & Co. [1898]. 

1900. 

Mexico. From official Mexican and other sources. Scale, 50 miles to the inch. 
Size, 39 X 28^. Prepared by the Bureau of the American Republics. Wash- 
ington, 1900. 



INDEX 



Aborigines 23 

Aboriginal records 35 

Achiote 144 

Acids and chemical works 313 

Agave plant, 145 

Agriculture.. 143-178 

Development of 148 

Protection to 146-47 

Agricultural conditions 143 

districts 145 

exports... -. 145 

expositions 148 

methods 145 

products, average 

price 346 

regions 143-144 

statistics... 150-174 

Aguascalientes (general descrip- 
tion of the State, its resourses, 

trade, industries, etc. ) 66-68 

Aliens.... 53-53 

Altitudes of the capitals of the 

States -. 336-337 

American commerce 337, 329, 330 

Antimony 184 

Antiquities 40 

Apiculture 14 

Arable lands 177 

Archbishoprics 317 

Archaeology 38 

Architecture 41 , 333-334 

Area 5,15,335 

Army.... 46,53-54 

Art 39 

Arsenic 184 

Asphaltum 195 

Assay offices 359 

Average prices 346-347 

Aztecs or Mexicans 17 

dynasties 18 

Baja California (general descrip- 
tion of the territory, its re- 
sources, trade, industries,etc. ) 137-140 



Bananas 144 

Production of. _ 170 

Banks 362-264' 

Assets and liabilities . 361 

Failures 363 

Government inspection 363 

Loan (refaccionarios) 364-365 

Of issue 263 

Privileges granted to 363 

Banking law 365-373 

securities 363 

Barley 150 

Barrancas, or ravines _ 7 

Bays 8 

Beer and ale 309 

Bibliography 350-356 

Bishoprics 317 

Birds 13 

Border States . . 55 

Boundaries: 

United States. 5 

Guatemala 6 

British Honduras 6 

Boundary Commission 6 

Budgets 249 

Building and cabinet woods 13-175 

Business movement . . 315 

Cabinet officers 47 

Cabinet woods 175,314 

Cable, submarine 394 

Cacao 144,158 

Cultivation 158-159 

Consumption 159 

Production 159 

Statistics on . 159 

Uses 158-159 

Campeche (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) . . 68-73 

Campeche wood or logwood. 174 

Canaigre 175-176 

Candy factories 213 

Capitals of the States 15 

375 



376 



INDEX. 



Page 

Capture of Acapulco (1813) 19 

City of Mexico 18 

Carlota, Empress .. 20 

Cartography 356-374 

Cattle 145 

cost of fattening 180 

exports of 181 

imports of... 181 

for breeding.. 179-180 

price of 180 

ranges 179 

shipments 240 

statistics 180,181 

Census: 

1810-1875 14 

1879-1895... 15 

Central plateau 7 

Central Republic 21-22 

States 55 

Cereals 149 

region 144 

statistics 150 

Cerro de las Campanas 21 

Cession of Mexican Territory to 

the United States 6, 20 

Chambers of Commerce . _ 344 

Chiapas (general description of 
the State, its resources, trades, 

industries, etc. ) 73-79 

Chicle gum, exports of 161 

production 161 

Chocolate industry 213 

Choro-gi 146 

Chronometry (aboriginal).. 33 

Churches 317-321 

Baptist.. 321 

Catholic 317-319 

Christian 318-319 

Methodist Episcopal. . . 320 

Presbyterian 320 

Protestant 319 

Cities (principal) 15 

Citizenship 51-52 

Civil wars 20 

Civilization (aboriginal) 31 

Climate 11-12 

Clothing, average price of im- 
ported articles 347 

Coahuila (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) 79-85 

Coal 184-185,194-195 

Coal- mining companies 194 



Coasts 3,5,8 

Coastwise trade 234 

Coat of arms.. 17 

Cochineal 14 

Codices 36-37 

Coffee - 144, 151-154 

cultivation 152 

exports.. 153 

production 154 

region 144 

statistics.. 154 

Coinage... 259 

ratioof.. 261 

Coins 260 

exports of gold and silver. . 191 

silver 260 

Cold region or zone 11 

Colima (general description of the 
State, its resources, trade, in- 
dustries, etc. ) 85-87 

Colonization laws (a synopsis) . 304-312 

Colonies 310-312 

founded by companies or 

private individuals . . . 311 
founded by the Govern- 
ment 310 

foreign 810 

other. 312 

Colonists 53, 306-307 

dutiesof 306 

official aid to. 307 

privileges 305-306 

Commerce 217-246 

aboriginal. 35,217 

by countries (1898-99) . 219 

foreign 218 

interior .... 217-218, 234-235 

Commercial conditions 219 

development 217 

houses (foreign) 230 

methods 220-221 

Concessions, mining 183 

steamships 298 

Congress.- 19,46 

of education 313-314 

Congressional sessions 46 

Conservative methods 204 

Consolidated debt 251 

Constitution 19-20, 46 

Constitutional guaranties 49-51 

organization 46 

Presidents 22 

provisions 53 



INDEX. 



377 



Constitutional rights . - 49-51 

Consular charges 240 

invoices -.- 238-241 

Consumption of cacao 159 

cotton 205 

tobacco 155 

vanilla 162 

Conventions and treaties 347-349 

postal - - - 299 

Conversion of foreign debt 353 

law on foreign debt . 254r-256 

Copper - 184-187 

Cordilleras or mountain ranges- , 7 

Corktree - - 1^6 

Corn._ 144,150-151 

Cortes, Hernando - -- 18 

Cost of exchange to pay foreign 

debt - 251 

fattening cattle 180 

labor ---- 344-345 

living - 331-332 

public education 316 

Cotton 156 

consumption 205-206 

cultivation 156-157 

imports of 157 

manufacture, 205-207 

mills 205-207 

piece goods _ 205 

production of . - - - - 157 

seed 179 

oil 212 

production 206 

statistics 157 

Courts (federal) - 48 

Cuauhtemoc 18 

Cultivation methods 149, 177-178 

Cultivation of cacao 158-159 

coffee... - 152-154 

cotton 156-157 

oranges 170-171,173 

pineapple 173 

rubber 159-.160 

sugar cane 162-163 

tobacco 155 

vanilla 161-162 

vines -- 168-169 

wheat 149 

Culture, aboriginal . _ 34 

silkworm 207-208 

Currency - - 260 

Custom duties. - . . 286-243 

Abolition of interstate duties 243 



Page. 
241-242 



Custom duties— Continued. 
Passengers, regulations. 

Regulations 236-243 

Warehouses 242 

Customs, aboriginal 31-33 

districts -- 232 

houses 234 

Debt: 

Amortization of 253 

Consolidated --- 251 

Conversion of 253 

Cost of exchange to pay the 

foreign - 251 

Domestic 251 

Executive law - - - 254-256 

Foreign 250-251 

Floating -- 251-253 

Public 250-256 

Resume 252 

Declaration of independence 19 

peace with United 

States 20 

Deposition of Viceroy Apodaca . . 19 

Deputies (representatives) , . . 46 

Development of agriculture 148 

railroads. 273-274 

Diaz, Porfirio 21 

Dictatorships 21-22 

Dioceses ^18 

Dispersion of the Toltecs 17 

Distilleries 209 

Distribution of seeds and plants. 146 
Divisions: 

Federal District 58-59 

Political 48-55 

Drainage of the Valley of Mexico. 56-57 

Domestic loans 251 

trade 217-218, 234-235 

Drawn work . 213 

Durango (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc.)--- 87-91 

Duties, colonists 306 

customs 236-243 

Members of Congress 47 

stamp, on imports 243 

Dyewoods 1^' ^'^^ 

exports of 1'74 

Early history of Mexico 16 

Eastern coast - ° 

Education 313-316 

compulsory - 313-314 

cost of public - - 316 

lay 313 



378 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Education, law on. 314-315 

statistics.. 315-316 

Educational institutions, private. 316 
Educational institutions sup- 
ported by the Government 316 

Educational methods 313 

reforms 313 

Electric plants 214 

Elections 47 

Emancipation of slaves 19 

Empires 21-23 

End of Spanish domination 19 

Episcopal Church 320 

Estimated receipts and expendi- 
tures of the Treasury for 1900-1 . 250 

Ethnic elements 23 

Ethnology and archaeology 23-45 

Ethnological and archaeological 

works on Mexico 352-356 

European population 14-15 

war against Mexico. . . 20 
Executive law on conversion of 

the foreign debt. 254-256 

Executive power 47 

Expenditures 249 

Exports from Mexico 218 

agricultural products... 145 

bananas 144 

cattle 181 

chicle gum 161 

coffee 153 

customs districts 232 

dyewoods 174 

gold 185 

bullion 189 

and silver Mexican 

coins 191 

henequen 164 

increase of 224 

ixtle 165 

leather, hides, and skins. 212 

metals and minerals 191 

oranges 170-171 

precious metals 259 

rubber 160 

silver bullion 190 

statistics 318-236 

tobacco 155 

to the United States from 

1892-93 to 1898-99 218 

to other countries, same 

period 218 

vanilla 161 

zacaton 166 



Page. 
Extent of boundary between Mexi- 
co and the United 

States 6 

mining concessions 183 

public-land grants 302 

railroads 275 

telegraph lines 293-295 

Fauna . 13 

Federal assay ofiBces 359 

courts , their j urisdicti on . 48 

district 49, 56-57, 65 

railways 253 

Republic 30-22 

and State schools 315 

telegraph lines 293 

Fibrous plants 13, 164-166 

Finances 247 

Financial crisis 349 

organization 247-250 

Fishes 14 

Fisheries 211-313 

Floating debt 351-353 

Flora.... 13,174 

Flour mills 309-210 

Fodder plants 175 

Food products (average prices) . 346-347 
Foreign commerce (from 1892 to 

1899).... 318 

Taxes on 347 

Foreign commercial houses 830 

debt.-.. 350-351 

loans 350-351 

trade 318-246 

Forests 143 

reservation 147 

Free zone 243-246 

Frontier custom-houses 334 

Fruits 13,169-174 

Furniture works 214 

Geographical position of Mexico. 5 

sketch 5-15 

Geology 9 

Ginger 177 

Glassware 313 

Gold 184-187,189 

and silver deposits (1899) . 356-357 
and silver Mexican coin, ex- 
ports . 191 

bonds ... 350,353-353 

circulation 261 

coins 360 

e-xports 185-189 

mines 

placers 185-186 



INDEX. 



379 



Gold production, increase of . . . 189-258 

statistics 189 

tax on silver and 359-260 

Government and constitutional 

organization 46,53 

assets and liabilities 

(1898-99) 257 

Aztec 17 

grants of public 

lands 302 

inspection on banks. 263 

of Mexico 21 

Governors of Mexico or New- 
Spain, 1521-1821 18 

Graminaceous plants - 175 

Grants of public land 302 

Grapes..- ..- 145 

wines and brandy 209 

Guanajuato (general description 
of the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) . . 91-95 

Guerrero (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) 95-98 

Gulfs - 8 

Gums and resins 161 

Haciendas or plantations 178 

Hammock industry 210 

Hardware industry. 213 

Hat industry 213 

Heniquen. 145,164,210 

exports... 164 

production 164 

statistics 164 

Hidalgo (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) 98-1 00 

Hidalgo y Costilla, Don Miguel _ . 18 

Hides and skins 212 

Historical sketch 16-22 

Hog raising 180 

Hydrography 8 

Immigration 304 

Importation of cattle for breeding 

purposes 179-180 

merchandise . _ . 218-219 
Imports of American goods 

(1898-99) 219 

by customs districts _ _ . 231-233 

from the United States 

from 1892-93 to 1898-99. 218 

other countries 

(same period).. 218 

increase of 224-225 



Page. 

Imports of raw cotton 157 

stamp duty on 243 

statistics..,.^. 218-219,222-236 

Increase of exports 224 

gold output... 189-258 

imports.. 224-225 

silver production 258 

Independence of Mexico 18 

Indian population 14-15 

Industrial progress 204-205, 

214-216, 220 
Industries — 

abor i ginal... 33-34 

hammock making . . _ 210 

hardware 213 

hat making 213 

manufacturing 204-216 

paper making 208 

rubber goods 214 

sugar making.. 162-163,208 

silk 207 

Insects 14 

Institutions, educational 316 

religious 320-321 

Inquisition .-. 317 

Islands 8-335 

Interest, rate of 263 

Interior commerce .... 217-218, 234-235 

debt.- 251 

district and territorial 

taxes 248 

Federal taxes 248 

International Boundary Commis- 
sion - 6 

Iron mines 184-187 

and steel works 185-210 

Irrigation.- 148-149 

Ixtle.. --- 145-164 

exports of 165 

production of - 165 

Jesuits in Mexico 318 

Juarez, Benito 21 

Judicial power 47 

Jurisdiction of courts 48 

Knit goods. ..- - 205 

Labor in Mexico 332 

cost of 334-335 

wages 332 

Laboring population 204 

Lakes-- -.. 8 

Lands, extent of public grants . . 302 

forests . ... 143 

for stock raising 179-180 

priceof 303 



380 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Lands, uncultivated 143 

receipts for sales 303 

regions 301 

Landing of Cortes 18 

Latitude of Mexico 5 

Laws, banking 265-272 

conversion of debt 254-256 

colonization ... 304^312 

education 314-315 

immigration 304-312 

irrigation 148-149 

mining.. 191,196,200,258 

patent 322-328 

publiclands. 314-315 

railroad land 284-293 

tariff 236-243 

trade-mark 328-330 

Lead mines 184-187 

Leading exports 224-225 

imports ... 225-227 

Leather exports 212 

Legislative pov^er . 46 

Lemons 173 

Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastian 21 

Limes 144 

Linguistic families and their lo- 
cation -- 24-26 

Live stock 13 

exports of 181 

imports of 181 

shipments. 240 

statistics 180 

Living, cost of 331-332 

Lixiv'.ation process of mining ... 193 

Loan banks . 264-265 

Loans, domestic 251 

foreign 250-251 

Longitude of Mexico 5 

Low price of silver 219 

Maguey 145,164-166 

fiber, paper made of 208 

statistics 166 

Mahogany 175 

Manufacturing industries 204-216 

Acids and chemical works. . . 213 

Beer and ale . . 209 

Candy.. 213 

Chocolate 213 

Cotton 205-206,213 

Furniture... 214 

Glassware 312 

Hammocks 210 

Hardware 213 

Hats -. 213 



Mannfac I. tiring industries — Contd. Page. 

Leather 212 

Matches 213 

Paper 208 

Profits 206-207 

Rubber. 214 

Silk.... 207 

Sugar 162-163, 208 

Maps of Mexico from 1858 to 

1900 356-374 

Maximilian , Emperor 20 

Death. 21 

Means of communication 273-300 

Medicinal plants 13, 174 

Merchandise, shipping of 237-241 

Merchant marine 236 

Mercury _ 184 

Mescal 166,209 

Metals.... 183 

exports of... 191 

Metalliferous belt 183 

Meteorological data 338-339 

Metric system 341 

Mexican aborigines 23 

cattle 179 

for the United 

States 180 

Church 319 

coat of arms 17 

coins 344 

drawn work 213 

Episcopal Church 320 

finances 247 

merchant marine 236 

American and metric 
systems of weights 

and measures 342-343 

Mexico, City of 60-65 

(General description of 
the State, its resources, 
trade, industries, 

etc.) ... 100-102 

as a consumer of Ameri- 
can products 320 

field for foreign cap- 
ital 221 

silver- producing 

country 220 

Michoacan (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) 102-105 

Mineralogy 10 

Mineral districts 182, 183, 184-189 

oils 196 

products 182-187 



INDEX. 



381 



Page. 

Mines and mining 182-203 

■new discoveries 190-193 

Mining concessions - 183 

laws .... 191-196,200-258 

methods- . 188 

processes (lixiviation) ._. 193 

(patio) 188-192 

progress.. 190 

regions 182 

taxlaw... 200-203 

bythe English 182 

Spaniards 182 

wages .-. 194 

Mints, currency, bank and bank- 
ing 258-272 

Miraraon -. 21 

Miscellaneous data 335-349 

works on Mexico 350-352 

Missions, Protestant 318-321 

Mixed races 14-15 

Modern history 18 

Monetary system 260 

Money, paper 247-261 

Morelos (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) 105-107 

Morelos y Pavon, Jose Maria 18 

Death . 19 

Mountain ranges or cordilleras . . 7 

Mulberry trees 147-208 

Municipal schools 315 

Napoleon III.... 20 

National reservation for forestry- 147 

Navigable rivers 9 

Navigation 234-235 

statistics . . 235 

Navy 54-46 

Newspapers and publications 316 

Northern States 55 

Nuevo Leon (general description 
of the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) 107-109 

Oaxaca (general description of the 
State, its resources, trade, in- 
dustries, etc.) .-•..- 109-112 

Occupation of Mexico City 20 

O'Donoju, Juan 18-19 

Official works on Mexico 350 

Oils, mineral 196 

Oleaginous plants 13, 166-167 

products 167 

Olive tree 146,167,169 

Opals 186 

Oranges, cultivation of 170-171, 173 



Page. 

Oranges, exports of 170-171 

production of 170 

Ores, shipments of 190 

Origin of the name of Mexico 17 

Orography _ 7 

Pacific coast . 8 

States 55 

Packing houses 214 

Palms 144 

Paper-making industry 208 

money 247-261 

Parishes and vicarages 318 

Passengers (tariff regulations) . 241-242 
Pastoral products, average price . 346 

Pasture lands 180 

Patent law (in full) 322-328 

statistics. -. 322 

Patio process of mining . . 188-192 

Peace, declaration 20 

Peaks --. 7 

Pearl fisheries - . 211 

Pepper. - 144 

Petroleum .- 195 

Pineapple, cultivation of 173-174 

Pisciculture 14 

Plan de Iguala 19 

Placers,gold 185-186 

Plantations or haciendas 178 

Plants, distribution of _ 146 

electric 214 

fibrous 13,164-166 

fodder.. 175 

graminaceous 175 

medicinal 13,174 

tanning 176 

tinctorial 174 

Political division 48-55 

parties (first) 20 

Populated regions. 12 

Population 14-15 

European 14-15 

Indian 14-15 

laboring 204 

native. 14-15 

principal cities. .... 140-142 
Ports open to foreign commerce. . 234 
Position and altitude of the capi- 
tals of the States 336 

Postal conventions 299 

movement 300 

service 298-300 

statistics 298-299 

Pottery works 210-211 

Powder works 313 



382 



INDEX. 



Pafe'e. 

Power, executive 47 

judicial 47 

legislative 46 

Precious metals _ 359 

stones 189 

woods 144 

Presidents 20 

salary ... 47 

Presbyterian Church 320 

Preservation of national forests. . 147 

Presidential election 47 

Price of cattle 180 

clothing 347 

food products 346-347 

land.. . 303 

Principal countries trading with 

Mexico 232 

Privileges granted to banks 263 

colonists. 305-306 

Production of bananas 170 

cacao 159 

chicle gum 161 

coffee. 154 

cotton 157 

mills 206 

gold 189-258 

heniquen 164 

ixtle 165 

mines 182-183 

oranges.. 170 

pineapples 174 

silver 189 

sugar 163 

tobacco 154, 156 

Products of the soil 143 

Profits of cotton manufacture . 206-207 
Progress in industries and manu- 
factures 204-205, 

214-316, 320 

mining 190 

Property, value of 340 

Protection to agriculture 146-147 

tariff.... 230 

Protestant bishops 319 

churches 319 

missions 318-321 

Provisional constitution '19 

government 21 

Public debt 250-856 

education, cost of 316 

law 314-315 

land grants . 302 

law (a synopsis). 303-303 
Publications 316 



Puebla (general description of the 
State, its resource.'!, trade, indus- 
tries, etc.) .. 112-114 

Pulque 16, 164, 165 

Queretaro (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc.). 114-116 

Railroad construction 220 

development 273-374 

earnings 283 

extent of 275 

law (a synopsis) 384-293 

statistics 274r-276, 283 

subsidies 251, 274 

systems 274,283 

telegraph lines 293 

traffic 274-283 

transportation 235-236 

under Federal grants . 275-276 
State grants... 275-276 

Railways -_. 205,273-283 

Federal District 253 

Interoceanic 279 

Mexico, Cuernavaca 

and Pacific 281 

Mexican Central.... 277-378 
International 280 
National . . . 279 

Mexican 276-277 

Monterey and Mexican 

Gulf 280 

National Interoceanic . 281 

other lines 283 

portable 275-276 

private 275-276 

Rio Grande, Sierra 
Madre and Pacific . 282 

Tehuantepec 274, 281 

Rainfall 11 

Ranges or cor dilleras 7 

Rate of interest 263 

Ratio of coinage 261 

Raw materials _ 204 

Rebellion against Spain 18 

Receipts from land sales 303 

of treasury (1882-1899). 256 
Recognition of Mexico by Eng- 
land and the United States 20 

Reduction works - - 188 

Regencies 21 

Regions . agricultural land ... 301 

mining 182 

populated 12 

sugar cane 144 



INDEX. 



383 



Religion 316-331 

Religious associations - - 321 

institutions 330-321 

publications - - 331 

Republican constitution - 20 

Reservation for forestry 147 

Reserve funds..- 249 

Resinous trees - --- 13 

Resume of exports 222 

imports. 223-334 

Mexican debt 353 

Revenues of the Republic 247-348 

and expenditures 849 

Rice -- ■■■- 144-150 

Richness of the soil 144 

Rigaflax 147 

Rights and duties of the States . 48 

Rivers 8-9 

navigable -- 9 

Rubber 144,159-160 

ciiltivation--. 159-160 

exports of -- -. 160 

I factories 214 

statistics 161 

Ruins and remains 41-45 

Rum --- 163-164 

Ship dues...- .- -- 242 

Shipments of metals and ore. ... 190 

merchandise 237-241 

Sierra Gigante - 7 

Sierra Guerrero 7 

Sierra Madre 7 

Silk goods _. 208 

industry... 207 

Silk worm culture. 207-208 

Silver 184-189 

and goldsmiths 213 

and silver mining — low 

price of ... 219 

bonds 250-253-353 

bullion, exports of 190 

coins 260 

different kinds of 193 

increase of its production _ 258 

production of 189 

tax on gold and 259-260 

Sinaloa (general description of the 
State, its resources, trade, in- 
dustries, etc.) .-. 116-118 

Slaves, emancipation of 19 

Salary of District judges 48 

the President 47 

Supreme Court j ustices . 48 
Salt... 148-188 



Page. 

Samples (tariff regulations) 241 

Schools , Federal and State 315 

municipal.-. 315 

primary . 314 

private 315 

Seal fisheries . - 213 

Seeds and plants — free distribu- 
tion...^. 146 

Senators 46 

Sericulture 14, 147, 167, 169, 308 

Sheep raising 179 

Smelting works 194-214 

Sonora (general description of the 
State, its resources, trade, indus- 
tries, etc.) .-.. 118-121 

Southern States 55 

Special agricultural districts 145 

Sponges, shells, etc 211-212 

Stamp duty on foreign imports . . 243 

tax 207 

States, area of 15, 335 

Atlantic coast 55 

governments 48 

revenues and expenditures 34 

rights and duties of 48 

telegraph lines 303 

of Aguascalientes . . 66-68 

Campeche _ 68-73 

Chiapas 73-79 

Coahuila.. 79-85 

Colima 85-87 

Durango 87-91 

Guanajuato 91-95 

Guerrero 95-98 

Hidalgo 98-100 

Mexico 100-103 

Michoacan - . - 103-105 

Morelos 105-107 

Nuevo Leon . . 107-109 

Oaxaca 109-112 

Puebla 112-114 

Queretaro 114-116 

Sinaloa 116-118 

•Sonora.. 118-121 

Tabasco 121-124 

Tamaulipas 134-127 

Tlaxcala 127-128 

Veracruz 128-131 

Yucatan 131-134 

Zacatecas... ., 134-137 

Statistics on agriculture 1 50-1 74 

cacao --. 159 

carrying trade 235-236 

cattle 181 



384 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Statistics on coffee 154 

cotton 157 

debt.. 253 

dye woods and plants 174 

education 315-316 

exports 218-219, 

222-224, 229-236 

gold output 189 

henequen 164 

imports 218-219, 

222-227, 229-233, 235-236 
Maguey products... 166 
movement of popula- 
tion 339-340 

navigation 235 

oleaginous plant 

products 167 

patents 322 

postal service 298-299 

railroads 274^276, 283 

religious institu- 
tions 320-321 

rubber 160 

silver production _ . _ 189 

spirits 209 

telegraph lines 294 

tobacco 156 

trade-marks 330 

vanilla 162 

vine and products . . 168 

vital 339-340 

Steamship concessions 298 

lines 295-298 

subsidies... 295 

Stock breeding 179-181 

importation of, for breeding 

purposes 179-180 

lands suitable for breed- 
ing 179-180 

Submarine cable 294 

Subsidies — steamships 295 

railroads 251,274 

Sugar beet 176-177 

cane 14-4,162-163 

cultivation of 162-163 

industry 208 

manufacture 162-163 

mills 208-209 

products 209 

production _ 163 

region 144 

Sulphur deposits 188 

Supreme Court of Justice 47 

Government 46 



Page. 

Tabasco (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) 121-124 

Tamaulipas (general description 
of the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) 124-127 

Tanning barks and plants 176 

Tariff law (a synopsis) 236-243 

protection 220 

regulations.. 241-242 

Taxes 247-248 

federal 248 

foreign commerce 247 

gold and silver 259-260 

interior, district, and terri- 
torial 248 

law on. 200-203 

mining 191 

stamp . . 207 

trade-marks 330 

Telegraph lines 293-295 

Federal 293 

private 293 

railroad 293 

State 293 

statistics 294 

Telephone service 295 

Temperate Zone 11 

Tequila 166 

Tlachique. _ 166 

Tlaxcala (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

and industries) 127-128 

Tobacco 13, 144, 154-156, 209 

consumption of 155 

cultivation of 155 

exports of 155 

production of. . 154, 156 

statistics 156 

Toltecs 16 

Topography. .. 6 

Torrid Zone 11 

Tortillas 150 

Total debt 252 

revenues and expenditures 

of the States .. 341 

Trade, condition of 219 

domestic 217-218, 234-235 

foreign 218-246 

principal countries . . 232 

statistics 235-236 

with the United States . 229-230 

other countries ... 2-30-231 

Trade-mark law (in full) 338-330 



INDEX. 



385 



Page. 

Trade-mark statistics - _ 330 

Tramways .-.- 375-276 

Transportation facilities 149 

on railroads 335- 

286, 274-283 
Treasur3% cash on hand, June, 

1899 ---, 356 

estimated receipts and 

expenditures 250 

receipts from 1882 to 

1899 - ■ 356 

Treaties and conventions 347-349 

with the United States . _ . ^ . 349 
Gadsden and Guadalupe Hi- 
dalgo - 6 

Tribes, aboriginal 26-31 

A'alley of Mexico 8, 12, 55-57 

drainage 56-57 

Value of property 340 

Vanilla_. 144,161 

cons^^mption 162 

cultivation 161-162 

exports 161 

statistics .-. 162 

Various industries . . . . .. 213-216 

Veracruz (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) - . 128-131 

Vicarages and parishes 318 

Vine 145,167 

cultivation.. 168-169 

statistics 168 

Vital statistics 339-340 

651a 25 



Volcanoes 7 

Wages to labor -.. 332 

miners 194 

War of independence -- 18 

with France 20 

with the United States _ . . . . 30 
Waterworks of the City of Mexi- 
co - . - - - 64^65 

Waxworks 211 

Weights and measures _ - - 341-343 

Wheat ---- -. 145,151 

cultivation 149 

Wines :.--- 168-169,209 

Wooded lands 143 

Woolen goods 207 

Worship and religious rites (abo- 
riginal ) . 38 

Yturbide, Agustin de . . 19 

Yucca 144,176 

Yucatan (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc.) . .. 131-134 

Zacatecas (general description of 
the State, its resources, trade, 

industries, etc. ) - . - 134-137 

Zacaton de Guinea . . 146, 166 

exports of ... 166 

Zinc 184-185 

Zones : 

Cold 11 

Free... 243-246 

Temperate 11 

Torrid.. .., 11 



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